The structure of ‘The Turn of The Screw’ is particularly unusual as we are given a story within a story within a story! The tale begins with an anonymous narrator recounting his experience of a Christmas Eve that he spent with a group of acquaintances in an old house. He recollects the group sharing “strange” tales with each other, and speaks of one that he found particularly chilling. The narrator of this tale is a character named Douglas. Douglas procures the handwritten memoirs of a deceased woman that he used to know, and who he was once in love with: his sister’s Governess. He informs his audience about the woman’s history, speaking of her background and her temperament, and then gives a short introduction to her story. He explains how the young woman had “come up to London, in trepidation, to answer in person an advertisement” to be Governess to two young orphans, and how the woman became instantly infatuated with her interviewer: the children’s Uncle. The woman is offered the position and accepts, and it is then that the narration is taken over by the Governess’ manuscript.
Introducing the characters of the initial narrator and Douglas establishes the idea of intelligent men’s belief in the tale and the concept of ghosts. When we begin to read directly from the Governess’ journal, Douglas’ “confident admiration” of the Governess has predisposed us to consider her a reliable source. Also, as the Governess’ story is written in first person, we are only provided with her version of events. Consequently her claims seem more plausible.
The ending of The Turn of the Screw is particularly unusual because some we are left with out any explanation or conclusion telling us what really happened at Bly. The true nature of the Governess’ visions and the state of her mental health is left completely addressed. The final chapter actually leaves us with more unresolved issues as we question the true cause of Miles’ death; had Peter Quint finally succeeded in his quest to claim the boy’s soul, or was he smothered to death by the neurotic Governess? Though some readers may find it frustrating, it is this ambiguity and multiplicity of interpretations that makes ‘The Turn of the Screw’ such an effective piece of literature.
I believe the Governess to be the most important character in ‘The Turn of the Screw’, as the way we interpret the other characters’ behaviour and our opinions on the true nature of what really happened at Bly is entirely dependant on how we perceive the Governess.
Those who choose to believe ‘The Turn of the Screw’ is simply a ghost story will perceive the Governess as courageous and heroic, however, if we analyse her character from a Freudian standpoint our opinion of her becomes entirely different. Douglas' "confident admiration" of the governess predisposes us to consider her a reliable source, but when we observe that each supernatural visitation follows a stressful incident or vivid fantasy, we begin to question her credibility. Though the author of the account seems reasonable and level headed throughout the tale, we must remember that the words we are reading are not those of the naive 20 year old. The account it is written many years after the actual events, by a considerably more experienced and mature Governess, who admits that if placed in those same situations in her seasoned state, would almost certainly have reacted differently. She acknowledges that her perception of a Bly, for instance, would probably be much different to her first impression: “I daresay that to my older and more informed eyes it would now appear sufficiently contracted”. Unfortunately, her own memories are the only evidence on which the older Governess can base her conclusions about what really happened. Despite describing herself as "anxious”, "fluttered" and “easily carried away”, it clearly does not occur to her that she may have become susceptible to stress induced hallucinations… She writes as though her perceptions were the reality. In addition, we must consider Douglas’ own feelings towards the Governess; he admits to have been in love with the woman, therefore his infatuation may have altered his perception of her, just as the Governess’ infatuation altered her perception of the Uncle.
Critics of ‘The Turn of the Screw’ have suggested that in a post-Freudian interpretation of the story, there are obvious sexual undertones to the story. This theory would suggest that the Governess, desperate for her employer’s approval, creates some imaginary life-threatening danger from which she alone can save the children. As the Uncle has insisted that he should not be bothered with affairs concerning the orphans, the Governess would conclude that the danger must be terrible to merit his attention. This post-Freudian interpretation would also suggest that the Governess would not be consciously aware of the true source of her visions, as it is insinuated that she is sexually repressed or unaware and, therefore, would find it impossible to acknowledge her true motives to herself.
This theory that the Governess is a neurotic delusional is also supported by the overly-affectionate, smothering manner in which she deals with the children, and her paranoia concerning their behaviour. Though the Governess is initially “fiercely fond” of her pupils, towards the end of the tale, her opinion of them turns horribly sour, particularly regarding Flora. The same children who the Governess describes as “heavenly” and ”angelic” at the beginning of the novella supposedly become “beastly” and “ugly”, as her relationship with them gradually deteriorates.
A post-Freudian interpretation also causes us to question the, perhaps inappropriate, nature of the Governess and Miles’ relationship. The way in which she constantly refers to Miles as her “little gentleman” and he precociously calls her “my dear” is a little suspect. Their relationship seems to be more like that of a young couple than that of a teacher and pupil.
Mrs Grose, the uneducated housekeeper, is also an important character. In terms of the class system, she is far below the Governess, so to a 19th century reader their relationship would have seemed quite peculiar. The Governess refers to Mrs Gross as a “kind companion” and is the only member of the household who she trusts and with whom she shares her visions and theories. Mrs Grose is also very fond of the children, and is horrified by the notion that the “little darlings”, of whom she is so proud, may be corrupted by satanic forces. There is an incident towards the end of the tale in which the Governess supposedly sees Miss Jessel whilst in the company of Flora and Mrs Grose. Mrs Grose denies being able to see the apparition exclaiming “Where on earth do you see anything?”. This leaves us with the question of whether Mrs Grose truly did not see anything or whether the truth was too awful for her to face.
It is clear that the world of Henry James’ ‘The Turn of the Screw’ is very different to our modern world. This is especially apparent through the pre-feminist and pre-Marxist attitudes which are shown through the way James portrays women, education, religion and class.
The governess, despite her responsibilities as a teacher, has a limited education. During the period of history in which the tale is set, the norm was for women to receive inferior schooling. This is apparent in 'The Turn of the Screw', as the level of tuition offered by the Governess is considered perfectly acceptable for Flora, however, it is assumed that Miles will be sent away to go to school: to develop his intellect, but also to "be among his own sort". When Miles exclaims "You know, my dear, that for a fellow to be with a lady ALWAYS—!", during a conversation in which he attempts to convince the governess to allow him to return to school, it is clear that he has been raised to accept this pre-feminist attitude.
Education is not the only aspect of life affected by these pre-feminist attitudes. To begin with, pregnancy outside of marriage was considered exceptionally scandalous and inevitably resulted in the end of the unfortunate woman's social and working life. It is inferred that this was the situation Miss Jessel, the previous governess, found herself in, and the reason for her abruptly leaving Bly. To make matters even worse for the ex-governess, Mr Quint, her suspected lover who is also deceased, had a terrible reputation and, due to the rigid class system which reigned supreme at the time, was considered to be far below her socially. This pre-Marxist attitude was strongly held by the majority of people at the time 'The Turn of the Screw' was written and becomes apparent through the characters' interaction, for example when Mrs Grose remarks "She was a lady. And he so dreadfully below.", as she discusses the deceased couple with the Governess.
The powerful hold the class system had on every aspect of life is also apparent through the running of Bly; the illiterate house keeper, Mrs Grose, has superior experience and practical skills regarding the upkeep of a home, however, it is the more scholarly Governess of a higher class who presides over the household.
The common attitudes to religion are also very different in "The Turn of the Screw". The previously mentioned conversation, in which Miles expresses his desire to leave Bly, takes place on a Sunday as the household prepares to enter Church. The Governess, however, becomes considerably distressed by what Miles has said to her and decides to return to the house instead of taking part in the service. Though her actions do not seem particularly remarkable to modern day readers, during the 1800's the cultural norm was for everyone to go church on a Sunday. Consequently, her behaviour would have been considered inappropriate and out of character. We can see this as one of the children remarks "What DID you do, you naughty, bad thing? Did you desert us at the very door?". Incidentally, it is when the governess returns to an empty Bly that she sights the ghost of Miss Jessel for the second time. Miss Jessel, however, does not seem to be immediately aware of the Governess' presence. This indicates that her intention was not to accost the Governess, but merely that she taken the opportunity to return to the sanctuary of her old classroom while she assumed everyone would be at worship. This expectation that everyone would attend Sunday service makes it clear that the attitude to religion was much different to our modern day attitudes.
It is important to keep in mind that a 19th century reader would probably find ‘The Turn of Screw’ far more shocking and powerful than a modern day reader.
Though James’ style may appear laboured and difficult, his intended audience would have been the intellectual and superiorly educated upper class; consequently, the complex writing style he favours is entirely appropriate. Though some may find the intricate sentences a little hard to follow, they allow James to provide extraordinary level of detail regarding the characters, setting and atmosphere. This mass of information, which may occasionally make the reader feel a little claustrophobic, means that tale is ideal for screen adaptation, as proved by the several films and stage productions based on it.
‘The Turn of the Screw’ is also richly infused with symbolism, and James employs several motifs, which run throughout the Governess’ account. The use of sound is particularly relevant, as it is used to symbolise life and all that is natural and normal. Conversely, silence often heralds any unnatural incidents, such as the Governess’ disturbing visions. The use of light also features heavily; Candle light seems to imply safety and protection whereas twilight suggests danger. One examples of this is when the Governess encounters Quint on the stairs and her candle, “under a bold flourish”, is blown out. She describes the “cold, faint twilight” in which the figure of Quint is framed.
The use of religious imagery is also extremely prevalent. There are frequent references to heaven, angels, demons and devils. The Governess compares her supposed battle with Quint and Jessel to “fighting with a demon for a human soul” and regularly describes the children as ‘heavenly’ and ‘angelic’.
Another theme used is the relationship between the world of the living and the world of the dead. Physical ‘connectors’ are used to symbolise the connections between these two existences. These ‘connectors’, however, could also be interpreted as barriers, such as the window through which the Governess sees Quint; the transparency of the glass allows them to share some degree of interaction, but prevents actual contact. Another example of a ‘connector’ is the lake in the grounds of the house. It is across this lake that the Governess sees Mrs Jessel for the first time, and Flora crossing over the water supposedly results in the Governess ‘losing’ the child to Miss Jessel. The church cemetery, in which Miles and the Governess have an important conversation, provides another symbol of the connection between life and death – one that is often used in our modern culture. The ‘physical barriers/connectors’ which I have mentioned are also evident through the way the Governess is frequently separated from the apparitions by a difference in elevation. These instances include her looking up at one of the high tower as she strolls through the grounds, standing on the landing as she peers down the stairs, and when she becomes frozen in the raised dining room as she looks down on the terrifying figure outside. It is also interesting to note that as the story progresses, the apparitions proximity to the Governess gradually increases as the apparent danger becomes more intense.
When considering all of these ‘connectors’ it is the lake, or the “Sea of Azof” as it is christened by Flora, that I find most interesting, particularly as it ties in with the nautical theme; Bly is referred to as “a ship lost at sea” and as the tale nears its climax the Governess feels she is “just nearly reaching port” to name but two examples. The sea is often associated with the unknown and is the subject of many strange and disturbing tales of the supernatural. Considering this, it seems to be an appropriate simile to employ. In addition, the Sea of Azof, or “the bay of the Black Sea”, is actually a real location that is believed to be named after a Polovtsian prince who died protecting his subjects. This draws further parallels with the Turn of the Screw, as it reminds us of the Governess’ devotion and how she too was willing to put her own life in danger in order to protect those under her charge.
The names of the characters are also very symbolic. ‘Miles’ is derived from the Latin for ‘soldier’, and Flora, of course, was the Roman goddess of flowers. This coincides with stereotypical 18th century views about the roles of males and females. Meaning can also be found in Mrs Gross’ name, which means ‘plain’ and ‘basic’. Considering the way in which the housekeeper is portrayed as simple and homely, we can see that this is another appropriate name. There is also, perhaps, some significance to the fact James only refers to the Governess by her title, and not by her true name. One explanation is that the Governess has reached a time in her life when she is trying to discover herself. The one role in which she feels she is effective and valued is that of Governess. This means that unconsciously she has no true identity other than that of Governess. This self image is reinforced by the fact the man she adores views her only as a function rather than a rounded human being. Alternatively, if we approach ‘The Turn of the Screw’ with a post-Freudian analysis, we could compare the tale to a psychological study. In such studies the subjects of the investigation are never referred to by their true names, only, for example, as patient x.
James uses several literary techniques to add further “turns of the screw” to the tale; the ambiguity of the text and the frequent use of dramatic irony keep the readers’ attention firmly gripped and keep us questioning “What really happened at Bly?”. These techniques are typical characteristics of the Supernatural, Horror, Gothic and Psychological genre.
In conclusion we are left with the question “What makes The Turn of the Screw” such a successful short story? It is my opinion that those who read The Turn of the Screw are split into three groups: those who revere the Governess as the valiant heroine of a chilling ghost story, those who are convinced James intended the novella to be a psychological thriller, and those who recognise it to be a masterfully crafted tale, its genius lying in the concept that there is no true interpretation at all! It is this multiplicity of interpretation to which I attribute the tale’s success.
I believe that James has achieved this effect, firstly, by incorporating several themes. Because James has used imagery, symbolism and literary techniques typical of several different genres, it is impossible to pigeonhole ‘The Turn of the Screw’ into one category. In addition, the fact that The Turn of the Screw remains effective whether we approach it as a traditional ghost story from a Freudian stance makes the tale especially genius, and proves how well written it is. James’ superb characterisation also contributes hugely to the novella’s success, with the ambiguous nature of the characters’ personalities and their interactions with one another constantly providing further twists and turns.
Though ‘The Turn of the Screw’ is very much a product of its time, its appeal is seemingly timeless, as made manifest through the many films, plays and even operas that have been inspired by it. One more recent example of this is the film ‘The Others’, released in 2001, which revolves around themes of ghosts and corruption of the innocent.
James has woven an intricate tapestry, each superbly constructed character, each poetic metaphor, each gripping “turn of the screw” a brightly shining thread adding to the brilliance of the final masterpiece. That is what makes this tale such a success.
