As well as news programmes and documentaries on television there was an increasing amount of films, and an ever-growing interest in Hollywood and the movies. Previously it was unheard of for a black person to have a role in any film, unless it was a degrading role such as a slave or an old cleaner. White men were more likely to dress up as Negroes instead, but as the years passed there was a gradual change of the image of black people and they were eventually accepted as stars, thanks especially to remembered actors such as Sydney Poitier.
Images were shown both on television and in newspapers and books. Photographs such as Source C, a picture of Elizabeth Eckford on her first day at Little Rock High School showed the truth. We can see how the white citizens are reacting to the enrolment of black pupils at their school, which once again provokes sympathy from the white American’s who were not fully aware of what was happening around them, especially in the north, where racism wasn’t nearly as extreme as it was in the southern states.
Various forms of literature were used to promote the issue of segregation. Magazines often included articles because they had a wide audience, which was primarily female, who generally had more sympathy and could relate more to the problems of others, whereas men who worked generally didn’t have time to worry about the problems of others who they didn’t even know. Magazines often had interviews with important people within the problem that they were discussing, as we can see from Source D, part of an article by Martin Luther King in the magazine ‘Liberation’. This tells of his true feelings, which show the public exactly how he and other Negroes feel, ‘his [the Negro’s] struggle will not be free of violence began by his enemies’ gaining support and understanding.
The personal experiences spoken about by black Americans in autobiographies although show us a very accurate view of the thoughts of the targeted Negroes at that time did not have an impact at the time of segregation. Many important Americans of that time discuss racism as having been a key part of their lives, as we see by autobiographies by key leaders such as Martin Luther King and Source E, an extract from the autobiography of Malcolm X in 1970. But despite the insight into Malcolm X’s feelings, ‘Thus, they never did really see me’ the book was published once the major problems of segregation were over so did not have any contribution to the problem at the time, in the mid 1960s. Also, autobiographies, in comparison to television or newspapers, appeal to only a minimal amount of the population.
Other literature, in the form of text books, although now give us a good picture of what went on, were obviously not written or published during the years of segregation, like the autobiographies just described. Books though, such as the extract in Source A, were a way in which civil rights were promoted. The text often related to a specific event, in this case the enrolment of Elizabeth Eckford at Little Rock High School and shows the feeling of the individual, ‘I was very frightened and didn’t know what to do.’ It shows the efforts of the government, in this case Eisenhower, to end segregation, here within the educational system.
The main form of literature, newspapers probably had the greatest audience of all, and therefore one of the largest impacts. Newspapers could be exaggerated and over dramatised in an attempt to attract readers and sell more copies, but if anything this could show amplified brutality to black Americans and therefore further increase the sympathy of the readers. We see in Source B the role of newspapers in educating the American public. This shows the extreme reaction of the public to desegregation in schools, ‘three girls…wailed hysterically, tears running down their faces.’ The daily reports on local and national discrimination- caused events informed the public all over the USA of what was going on, with sympathy provoking articles and images combined.
Single key events such as the ones described during Sources A, B and C regarding what went on at Little Rock High School were important to make an impact. These proved that what was being said about the level of racism were true. With no test cases like this it could never have been shown that the hatred towards black people was present and it would not have been believed. As we see if Source A, ‘when I looked at her again she spat at me.’ Without these circumstances the issue would never have seemed serious enough for adequate action to be taken for desegregation to be obtainable. Although it was unfortunate for the individuals involved to have to go through it, it had to happen.
The individuals themselves were just as important. It took the strength and courage of certain black Americans standing up for their rights in order for action to be taken. If all Negro teenagers had been too afraid to stand up for their right to equal education for example, desegregation within schools would never have happened because there would have been no point in it. Therefore people such as Elizabeth Eckford and the black football players were vital if civil rights were to ever progress to desegregation. We see in Source C how brave some of these individuals were. Despite the terror of the situation, we can tell the courage and determination of the girl, despite the fact that she is wearing dark glasses and is young and probably terrified of what could happen to her she is still standing up for what she believes in and this is what makes all the difference.
The roles that the Presidents played in the United States was perhaps not so vital but still had some input, even if of less importance. Kennedy’s small gestures only affected one small place at a time, for example a school or a football team, so this did not have a large-scale effect on the US. His fear of standing up against racism and therefore losing votes prevented any real progress from being made. After his assassination however, when Johnson took over, the previously failed Civil Rights Act was passed in sympathy for the dead President. This banned segregation in public areas and although was only passed in pity, would not have been at all if Kennedy had not made it in the first place before his death. Altogether President Johnson introduced a number of important reforms after segregation between the years of 1963 and 1968 to help for example, mixed race marriages and black voting, but these were slow and far apart, and much of the white public and many figures of authority chose to ignore the changes in the law and carry on as they previously had done.
Of more importance were the roles of key leaders such as Martin Luther King and Malcolm X. Martin Luther King and his followers stood up for what they believed in by peaceful methods such as protests, marches and the bus boycott. He was important because he was the first black leader who brought the issue to attention in the first place and gave black Americans the first chance to stand up for themselves. Before this, few black American citizens realized that they had any choice but to accept the way in which they were treated. His methods however weren’t very effective. Because of his lack of force, he could be ignored and his protests were no more than an inconvenience to the white public. They knew that they could continue how they wanted because the no violence rule would not allow the protesters to retaliate. As people became increasingly frustrated at the slow progress being made they turned to a Malcolm X, who unlike King thought that equality could never be achieved in such as racist world, and that black people should have power and form their own societies with complete segregation, and could eventually return to Africa. Malcolm X made white citizens begin to realize that black Americans could play the same game, and that they were becoming more intimidating.
As well as Martin Luther King and Malcolm X, during the 1960s there were more radical groups that believed strongly in black power. Examples of these were the SNCC (Student Non-Violent Co-ordinating Committee) and the Black Panthers. Neither group believed in co-operating with the white citizens and like Malcolm X thought that blacks should be dependant and prod to be who they were. The Black Panthers used a lot of violence however, which caused them to clash with the police. Despite this it got them a lot of publicity, bringing the problem frequently in the public eye and causing people to take notice of what was going on. It was publicity and keeping the issue on the surface that caused the changes to be made, but without the forms of media such as newspapers and television, the country would not have known about the extremity of the racism so the groups would have had no success in anything but provoking their local area.
Although, as the author of Source I believes, television played a crucial part in ending segregation in the USA, without the other forms of media discussed backing it up, television would have not made any difference to the situation of racism. It takes the contribution of all media types for any one of them to have any kind of impact of segregation.
