jeffersonian republicanism

Jefferson was inaugurated as President on March 4th 1801, federal government was

now held by a party that wished to diminish its size and influence, in is speech he

announced, “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.” His ideology of

republicanism was that all men had equal justice regardless of state or persuasion,

whether political or religious. He wanted peace, commerce and honest friendship with

all nations without forming alliances with any. He proposed that a peoples’ militia

would be implemented to protect the country rather than an army or navy; Jefferson

felt a country, so isolated as America, needed little defence. Although this belief had

to be compromised when he founded West Point in 1802.

Jefferson’s proposals, during his first term, were hugely popular. He supported basic

rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press and impartially selected

government. The Republicans abolished the ostracized Naturalisation Act of 1798 and

allowed The Alien and Sedation Acts to expire whilst giving pardon to those still in

jails for violating them. Not only did they also abolish the detested Whiskey Excise

but the whole Federalist system of internal taxation. Republicans objected to imposing

high taxes to fund military expansion. Although Jefferson overturned the principal

Federalist domestic and foreign policies he saw the tools of government as a way to

achieve republican goals rather that an instrument of oppression.

Jefferson believed a government was at its strongest when it was putting the lightest

burden on its citizens; hence he reduced the size of government and cut expenditure.

In his first inaugural address he declared

        “..it is said that men cannot be trusted with the government of himself.

        Can he, then, be trusted with the government of others? …Let history

        answer this question.”

Soon after taking office Jefferson was compelled to go against his principles firstly

with excise tax, a Hamiltonian policy, which he loathed as he believed this heavily

affected his farmer following. By repealing this act he was going against his policy on

repaying debt, costing the federal government about a million dollars a year in

revenue. While he claimed to promote human equality, he omitted slaves and Indians,

even keeping the slaves he had inherited. The common man was never offered

political office, nor did he believe in education above primary school level.

Republicans now controlled congress, except for the Judiciary, which in his last hours

of his presidency, Adams appointed as many federalists as possible to these

positions; this would later be known as the ‘midnight appointments’. This caused

Jefferson again to struggle to uphold his policy of improving state rights and

removing power from federal government. As a result of the famous Marbury v.

Madison case (1803) the notion of ‘judicial review’ was created, as Chief Justice John

Marshall ruled that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional. This led to the

Supreme Court having the final word on interpreting the constitution. Jefferson

attempted to allocate this power to the states in his Kentucky Resolutions but failed

due to Marshall’s ruling.

The Louisiana Purchase (1803) was the greatest Republican triumph under Jefferson

but was also a contradiction of his principles. When Jefferson learned of Spain’s

intention to cede Louisiana back to France he felt he must act quickly to avoid

conflict with Napoleon. He feared that if this happened he would be forced into an

alliance with Britain, which would violate his anti-entanglement policy. Rather than

take this risk Jefferson sent Monroe to Paris to offer Napoleon $10 million in

exchange for New Orleans and West Florida, or if the French refused to sell, at least

for a perpetual guarantee of the use, by Americans, of the Mississippi. If both failed

Monroe was instructed to approach England for a defensive alliance. Sir Winston

Churchill believed Napoleon’s unexpected decision to sell to the whole of Louisiana

to America was due to the loss of thirty thousand men during the French Expedition

to Haiti. He also claimed that

“The renewal of war between France and Britain after the Peace

        of Amiens was also imminent.” 

On 30th April 1803 a treaty was signed whereby the whole of Louisiana was

purchased for approximately $15 million by the United States from France. It had

been necessary for Jefferson to behave unconstitutionally in order to acquire this land,

he passed his purchase through congress without amending the constitution and it

adversely affected the economy as it cost twice the normal annual expenditure of

government. Also

‘According to his own doctrine of strict construction the federal

government had no constitutional power to acquire additional

territory or to promise full American citizenship to its inhabitants

(as was provided in the treaty).’

Jefferson found himself between two options that were both against his principles but

his next presidential term was to prove much more difficult to uphold his republican

policies. On March 4th 1805 he was inaugurated for a second time, in his speech he

merited the success of his administrations to ‘the citizens at large’ rather than to

himself. He now suggested that a republic would be stronger, his logic, according to

Peterson was

        ‘The larger the association, the more remote its extremities, the

more varied its interests, the less would the center be shaken in

any crisis of affairs; and expansion within continental limits

secured the nation from foreign enemies.’

Jefferson’s first term had been widely successful, due to this the Republicans now

held over-whelming majorities in both houses of Congress. For a group of doctrinaire

state-rights Republicans from Virginia it was too little, too late. These dissidents, led

by John Randolph of Roanoke, were displeased that Jefferson had failed to get rid of

Federalist office-holders, they felt Jefferson had moved somewhat towards

Federalism. In 1805 Randolph broke with the administration due to issues regarding

federal funds; Jefferson’s lacking support over the impeachment of Chase and the

notorious scandal of Yazoo land. The ‘Quids’, as they now became known, also

opposed Jefferson’s proposal to buy West Florida. It was now questionable how many

republican values Jefferson would remain loyal to.

In addition to this a group of New England Federalists led by Timothy Pickering

were plotting disunion, there intention was to form a separate Northern Confederacy.

Hamilton refused to back this plan but Burr, who was now trying to salvage a political

career after the Republicans dropped him, approved it. A duel over this matter led to

Hamilton’s death on 11 July 1804. Burr tried to conspire, unsuccessfully, first with

Britain, then Spain against the Union. The scheme was discovered and an attempt was

made to indict Burr for treason but failed due to a constitutional requirement of two

witness statements, only one was available. Opposition from fundamental republicans

showed that Jefferson’s ideology of a Republic were failing.

Jefferson was to encounter yet more problems, this time in the form of neutral rights;

Britain and France had brought America into their feud over trade. Until 1805

America had managed to remain neutral without causing itself any great problems but

the Essex decision of that year ruled that vessels making broken voyages between two

enemy ports should be classed as making one continuous voyage.  As a result of this

British warships established a blockade of the American coastline seizing large

numbers of American vessels.

In 1806 Napoleon’s Berlin Decree closed the continent to vessels that had called at a

British port. Between Britain and France hundreds of American vessels and

merchantmen were confiscated. Neither country had any regard for American rights.

The actions taken by the British were offensive as their sea powers extended beyond

European ports; they also impressed ‘British’ born sailors and refused to acknowledge

naturalization. In 1807 the British frigate Leopard fired upon the American warship

Chesapeake, boarded her and impressed four alleged deserters. Jefferson retaliated

with ‘peaceable coercion’ rather than war so he passed the Nonimportation Act of

1806 and the Embargo Act of 1807.

Jefferson achieved his goal but at great economic cost; land values fell, farm prices

collapsed and bankruptcies multiplied. According to Jones, citizens felt

        ‘..that it sacrificed their interests for a utopian purpose and..

        believed it to be unconstitutional.’

The embargo Act caused widespread discontent and no doubt aided the resurgence of

the Federalist in the 1808 election. In 1809 Jefferson was replaced but many of his

policies remained in place, as many do even to this day. Jeffersonian Republicanism

in its purest form is evident during the commencement of his first term but gradually

it became something quite different, as it was recognized during the eight years he

was in office.

                                Bibliography

Churchill, Sir Winston, The Great Republic A History of America, (MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, London, 1999)

Jones, Maldwyn.A, The Limits of Liberty American History 1607-1980, (Thomson Litho, East Kilbride, Scotland 1983)

Peterson, Merrill D, Thomas Jefferson & the new nation, (U.S.A. 1970)

Tindall, George Brown & Shi, David E, America A Narrative History, (W.W. Norton & Company Ltd., 10 Coptic Street, London WC1A 1PU, 1999)

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