It is difficult to pin point where ageing begins and as stated by Gross in his 2005 edition of Psychology, research by Bee and Mitchell (1994) reveals that ‘it is easier to predict body growth and development in infancy, childhood and adolescence than it is to specify the age at which changes are expected to occur in adults. In adults more weight is laid on social and interpersonal factors as the cause for ageing than chronological age or maturation. Until recently it was thought that intellectual capacity was at its greatest in late teens or early twenties, then levelled off and began to decline steadily during middle age and then more rapidly in old age. (Gross, 2005)
This came from cross-sectional studies i.e. studying different age groups at the same time.
Firm conclusions could not be drawn from these studies as the age groups compared represent different generations with different experiences. Unless we know how an individual performed earlier on in life it is impossible to know whether or not intelligence declines with age. (Gross, 2005)
These statements can be supported when looking at the effects our western society has on older people. For example, particular social meanings are associated with particular ages i.e. at 16 you can leave school and work full- time, at 18 you can buy and drink alcohol in a bar. However, at 60 for women, or 65, for men, you have to take compulsory retirement and become a ‘pensioner’. There is often stigma attached to receiving a pension and when people are in this position they are usually in a state of dependency. Many older people want to remain independent, not wanting to be a burden on others. As cited in (Gross, 2005) Cumming and Henry’s (1961) social disengagement theory relates to the elderly after retirement, children growing up and leaving home and so on it involves the withdrawal of society from the individual. “As far as society is concerned, the individual’s withdrawal is part of an inevitable move towards death – the ultimate disengagement.” (Manthorpe, 1994). “By replacing older individuals with younger people, society renews itself and the elderly are free to die.” (Bromley, 1988)
From Social Disengagement Theory we can move into the personal growth model. As the decrement model would suggest that the elderly retreat and move away from social circles to resign themselves to awaiting death, the personal growth model would suggest the power of increased individuality, where in the roles that remain, older people are much less governed by strict rules and expectation. Where the decrement model would suggest the loss of financial independence which is brought about by compulsory retirement and being forced o live on a pension which for many is barely enough to cover their needs, the personal growth model would suggest that following retirement, children will have grown up and left home and outgoings will be lower. (Gross, 2005)
The personal growth model which was proposed by Erikson, is also known as Psychosocial Theory. This model is viewed as a more valid and useful way of looking at ageing. It looks at the psychological importance of old age as a stage of development, even though it is the last stage that a person goes through. The personal growth model stresses the advantages and positive aspects of ageing. According to Erikson, in old age (‘maturity’) there is a conflict between ego integrity (the positive force) and despair (the negative force) and a persons task is to end the stage and therefore their life, with greater ego integrity than despair to die happy with what they have achieved. (Gross, 2005)
Kalish (1982) emphasises the increase in leisure time, the reduction in many day to day responsibilities and the ability to pay attention only to matters of high priority among the elderly. Older people respond to the reality of a calculable and limited future by ignoring many of the petty details of life and channelling their energies into what is really important.
The personal growth model is in action more recently as there has been an increase in the number of organisations set up for older people. One organisation is the University of the Third Age (www.u3a.org.uk), which has shown that the period after retirement can be a very positive one, bringing opportunities to learn and take up new hobbies. Age concern (www.ageconcern.org.uk) also provide services for older people, such as, specialist day clubs, lunch clubs, library books for the housebound living in rural areas, a counselling service and many more.
From observing all angles of the different attitudes to ageing it can be seen that it is normally socially determined. Individuals tend to have a fear of growing old and it is not a concept that is generally welcomed. Old age is becoming more acceptable and it is becoming clearer that old age brings with it, increased free time for the elderly and that where possible they are self governed. It can be observed that people see a small percentage f elderly people as frail and they assume similarity amongst the population of the aged.
Ageing should be recognised as a celebration of achievements through long life as opposed to a view of the elderly as a drain on the economy.
Due to the change in family patterns and the segregation of the community, many older people need to be supported and empowered by society. Evidence shows that the elderly constitute a large group within our society and service delivery needs to be developed in order to cope.
Bibliography
R D Gross, Psychology – The Science of Mind and Behaviour, Hodder Arnold, London
Bond J, Coleman P, Peace, S – Ageing in Society, Sage, London
