- Our genetic make up
- Our past experience
- The nature of the situation in which we find ourselves
- Our free will
Theoretical approaches to personality
Theories of personality recognised behaviour is determined by the factors inside a person and events in the surrounding environment.
Trait theory
The trait theory emphasises the roles of genetics in determining our individuality. The theory says that individual’s personality is made up of certain characteristics or traits. Individuals are said to differ in each trait due to genetic differences. Traits are the stable, enduring characteristic of a person that are considered across a Varity of situations. Traits can be measured according to their frequency intensity and the range of situations they can be applied to. One person can be an extrovert, lively, impulsive etc, while another is introvert, very shy, quite etc. These can affect and be seen in the sport they play.
As mentioned previously personalities can be placed into two categories, which are introvert and extrovert. Introverts are usually quiet and don't need a lot to be going on to keep occupied. Introverts tend to be calmer more thoughtful and careful. They tend to prefer sports, which are solitary, less active and less competitive. Research show that introverts tend to work hard in training, get nervous before big events, perform intricate skills well and have a lower tolerance of pain. This means that they are less likely to take part in contact sports and more likely to take parts in sports such as archery, golf tennis and swimming.
Extroverts on the other hand, need a lot of things to be going on to keep amused and are usually found to be in the centre of attention and loud. They are more lively optimistic and sociable. They tend to prefer team sports, sports with aggression and action packed competitive sports. Extroverts get impatient with intricate skills and get bored easily in training.
A person cannot be labelled as an introvert or extrovert until they have been observed closely, in different situations. Someone who appears talkative with friends may appear quite and shy around strangers. This also means the links between personality and sports involving introverts and extroverts are generalisations. There are always exceptions for example some one who is a introvert may play a team sport. 100meter runners are usually extroverts who are positive and enjoy important events at high arousal but still do an individual sport.
Trait approach
Trait theorists such as Hans Eysenck suggested three important dimensions in an individual’s personality
EPI (Eysnecks personality inventory)
Extroversion ←------------------------------------------→ Introversion
Neuroticism ←------------------------------------------→ Stability
Phychotiscism ←---------------------------------------→Self control
Cartel (1965) disagreed with Eysencks view; He felt that Eysencks theory was to simplistic and that the categories are to ridged for people to easily fit into. He argued that it was necessary to look at larger number of traits.
Cartels 16 personality factors
- Warmth (reserved vs. warm)
- Reasoning (concrete vs. abstract)
- Emotional stability (reactive vs. emotionally stable)
- Dominance (deferential vs. dominant)
- Liveliness (serious vs. lively)
- Rule-Consciousness (expedient vs. rule-conscious)
- Social boldness (shy vs. socially bold)
- Sensitivity (utilitarian vs. sensitive)
- Vigilance (trusting vs. vigilant)
- Abstractedness (grounded vs. abstracted)
- Privateness (forthright vs. private)
- Apprehension (self-assured vs. apprehensive)
- Openness to change (traditional vs. open to change)
- Self-reliance (group orientated vs. self-reliance)
- Perfectionism (tolerates disorder vs. perfectionistic)
Tension (relaxed vs. tense)
Personality traits are seen as generaliseable and behaviour can be predicted in various situations. These are known as situational theories.
Social learning theory.
Sees personality as primarily determined by past experience, and what situation we are in. A basketball player exhibits assertive behaviour because that situation calls for it and because it has been reinforced in the past, any person in the same situation would display the same behaviour.
Bandura (1973) describes it as “behaviour that is learned by observing others” E.g. if a sports performer of a high status is seen cheating, 'getting away with it' and achieving success, then a young player will be more likely to copy these actions. For example a young footballer learning to dive. Whereas if they saw a professional player being aggressive or cheating and being punished they are less likely to copy them.
The social learning theory states that people behave differently in different situations. This means personality is learned through observing others modelling behaviour. People can consciously change their first response to a stimulus depending on the situation.
There are three main approaches to studying personality and the Measurements of personality
Traits –
- Typical stage of behaviour
- How you generally feel
- Relatively consistence
State –
- The situations effect on behaviour
- A right now feeling
- Can change from moment to moment
Interactional theory
Traits →--------← situation
↓
Individual behaviour
Aggression
Aggression is the intent to physically, verbally or psychologically harm someone who is motivated is avoid such harm. Baron (1977) defines aggression as the following:
"Any behaviour directed at the goal of harming or injuring another being who is motivated to avoid such treatment."
There are certain types of aggression, some that lie within the rules or laws of the game and others that do not. Hostile or reactive aggression is said to be aggressive acts motivated by anger that have the intent and goal of harming another but also is not with in the rules. An example of this would be a dangerous tackle.
Many psychologists have introduced theories to how and why aggression is caused. Freud and Lorenz suggested “people, like animals have inherent predisposition to act aggressively”. Hobbes (1600's) called humans "homo Lumpus", or human wolfs, suggesting that aggressive acts of humans mimic those of savage animals. Hobbes also described how people release their built-up aggression through the act of aggression
Aggressive acts can also be imitated in the way of the social learning theory Bandura (1986) suggested the aggressive behaviours are learned through reinforcement by others or operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a process of behaviour modification where the chance of certain behaviour is increased or decreased through positive or negative reinforcement. Every time the behaviour occurs the person who acts that way, beings to associate the pleasure or displeasure with the behaviour. Observation of others in many forms of aggression adds towards the younger generation increasing aggression levels.
Moyer termed hostile aggression, “reactive aggression that is an emotional response to an individual perceived as an enemy or frustration rival”
Gill (1966) proposed that aggression has several features:
- It is behaviour: actually doing something not just wanting to do it.
- It involves harm or an injury to another living organism: it can either be physical harm or psychological harm such as creating fear in an opponent.
- It involves intent and is not done by accident
- Aggression is behaviour, which is intentional and deliberate, and it involves injury to another person.
Trigor (1969) states that “sport can serve as a sociably acceptable way of releasing aggression; sport had even been suggested to decrease the likelihood of war.”
To argue this Richardson (1994) said, “Participation in sport actually increases aggressive tendencies
Channelled aggression is aggression that is used to achieve a goal it is not accompanied by anger. This can is also known as assertion. Assertive acts are Aggressive acts that are intended to harm another person with the goal of achieving a goal without suffering. In other words "Gamesmanship" which can be seen as bending the rules.. Assertiveness is not entirely a form of aggression but a use of legitimate strategy and force to achieve a goal within the rules. An example of this would be an assertive tackle in the beginning of the game in order to intimidate the opponent. Instrumental aggression is aggression that is used to reach a non-aggressive goal. A performer who plays with energy and emotion and within the rules of the game is showing assertive behaviours. Assertive behaviour is acceptable, it is also;
- Goal directed behaviour
- The use of valid verbal or physical force
- Behaviour that has no intention to harm or injure
- Behaviour that does not break the agreed rules of the sport
Displacement aggression is where aggression is built up from an event but instead of being aggressive then the aggression is let out at a later point. E.g. getting angry at work, building up aggression then becoming aggressive in a football match after work.
Instinct theories of aggression
These theories suggest that aggression is an instinct that has evolved to help us survive.
Freud claimed that we have instincts that have to be satisfied. These instincts create an energy drive that is used to satisfaction. Freud and Lorenze see Aggression as building up within humans that creates a drive. If it is not released in a constructive way, for example using sport to let out aggression, it will lead to some form of impulsive disruptive or aggressive behaviour.
There are some limitations to the instinct theories;
- No inherited aggressive drive has been identified
- it is difficult to measure the effect of aggression
- Cross-cultural studies do not support the view that all humans are naturally aggressive
- Cultural influences are seen to be more influential with aggression than biological factors
- Human aggression is not always seen as spontaneous
- Human aggression is seen as reactive and modifiable
- Learning and social influences are not taken into account
- Aggression is seen more as a learned response linked to the human ability to reason
Frustration is an inability to reach goals and can be a major cause of aggression.
The frustration-aggression theory
This theory suggests that aggression is both inherited and learned and it is related to frustration. Frustration occurs when we are prevented from achieving our goals. Dollard et al (1939) argued that aggression is an inherited response that only occurs in frustrating situations. Aggression is always caused by frustration and frustration will always cause some sort of aggression.
- Inability to reach goal leads to frustration.
- Frustration involves aggressive drive
- Aggressive drive increases likelihood of taking part in aggressive behaviours
- Aggressive behaviours are viewed as cathartic
There are two types of Cathartic behaviours symbolic aggressive which means not hitting an opponent, or overt aggressive cathartic, which means striking out.
Dollard et al claimed that frustration makes aggression more likely to occur, but it may not be shown. This is due to certain limitations in the theory.
- Not all frustration leads to aggression in sport
- Aggression can be a learned response and does not always happen as a result of frustration
- Individual and situational differences are not taken into account
Berhovitz (1989) revised the model of the frustration-aggression theory
From this we can see that some relationships do exist between personality and sport performance but it is far from perfect. No specific profile has been found that consistently predicts athletes from non-athletes. Morgan’s (1980) mental health model shows that successful athletes exhibit greater positive mental health than less successful or unsuccessful athletes.
References
Stafford-Brown,J.Rea,S.Chance,J 2003 BTec national in sport and exercise science Hodder & Stoughton, Hodder & Stoughton educational
R.J Butler, (2000) sports psychology in action, published by Arnold, USA , 3rd addition
D. L Gill (1986) psychological dynamics of sport, published by human kinetics, USA 4th edition
B.woods (1998) applying psychology to sport, Hodder and Stoughton, Great Britain.
