This dissertation is a comparison of adolescent leisure in Hong Kong and Luzern.
. Introduction
.1 Background
Leisure has an important role in human's daily life. It helps people to reduce stress, to refresh, to have fun, to learn new skills and to widen knowledge. Since leisure will build up people's new skills, confidence, friendship and interest, most people will spend time on leisure everyday. Adolescence is a period where arguably a person has more time to spend on leisure. Most adolescents are students; adolescent students have a lot of free time after school. Adolescence is a period that people transit form childhood to adulthood and it is very important for adolescents to learn the variety of skill and knowledge that they need for an adult's life. Leisure can help adolescents to learn skills they need for the adult world. But adolescent leisure behavior will be different form one country to another because of the different education system, culture, lifestyle and leisure facilities available and this will cause differences between adolescent leisure behaviors in different ways in different nations. This dissertation will pick out Hong Kong and Luzern adolescents as research targets to look at differences in their leisure.
.2 Aims and objectives
This dissertation is a comparison of adolescent leisure in Hong Kong and Luzern. It compares time for leisure, allowance or pocket money available for leisure, constraints on exploring leisure, favorite leisure activities and reasons for taking part in favorite leisure activities among adolescents in Hong Kong and Luzern. In order to find out the similarities and differences of time for leisure, allowance or pocket money available for leisure, constraints on exploring leisure, favorite leisure activities and reasons for take part in favorite leisure activities among adolescents in Hong Kong and Luzern, it will also analyse concepts of positive and negative leisure activities.
.3 Definition of adolescent
Adolescence is a developmental period of transition between children and adulthood, which involves biological, cognitive, socio-emotional and social changes. The age range of adolescence is usually defined from 12 to 18, but in reality is difficult to define precisely.
.4 Leisure as a field of study
Leisure is usually defined as time or activity as these definitions are easily quantifiable and facilitate research: 'Leisure is defined as free or un-obligated time during one is not working or performing other life-sustaining performing' (Neulinger, Peterson, Maclean and Martin 1985:3). This type of definition of leisure is broadly accepted nowadays.
.5 Youth leisure as a field of study
Adolescents usually have to go to school to study for 8 hours a day or even more. This depends on different countries' policies on education. Also adolescents may not have enough allowance or pocket money for some leisure activities and they may also have constraints imposed by their parents or teachers. Adolescents also have different leisure interests than adults and children. As Steinberg, (1993) notes: 'Leisure plays an important role in helping adolescent develop a sense of identity, explore relationships with each other, and learn about society'.
.6 Conceptual framework
.6.1 Leisure time
Leisure time is defined as 'Leisure is time beyond that which is required for existence, the things which we must do, biologically, to stay alive...and subsistence, the things we must do to make a living...it is discretionary time, the time to be used according to our own judgment or choice' (Brightbill, 1960). Leisure time is a period of time that a person is feels free to do whatever he or she would like to do.
.6.2 Pocket money/allowance or part-time earnings for leisure
Some leisure activities may require people to pay for their enjoyment of the leisure activities. Adolescents usually receive pocket money or allowance from their parents. But sometimes adolescents will have part-time jobs in order to get more money to spend on their favorite things. Both pocket money and allowances from parents together with part-time earnings will allow adolescents to pay for some leisure activities.
.6.3 Constraints of leisure
Constraints of leisure are known as barriers to someone taking part in some activities. Constraints can be internal and external. Internal constraints can be fear of participating in some leisure activities. External constraints can be parents not allowing their daughter or son to take part in some leisure activities or the absence of facilities for some kind of leisure activities.
.6.4 Favorite leisure activities
Different people in different places will have different culture, education, as well as leisure activities. Favorite leisure activities by adolescents are the leisure activities that they desire to enjoy during their leisure time.
.6.5 Reasons for take part in leisure activities
The reasons for adolescents to take part in the leisure activities also can be seen as the motivations of adolescents joining leisure activities and why adolescents participate in leisure activities.
.7 Hong Kong and Luzern justification
Hong Kong is located in South-East Asia. Hong Kong covers 1027 kilometers squared and with 670 million residents in Hong Kong with 139 million ages between 0 and 19 around 20 % of the whole population. (www.info.gov.hk, 10/11/2001) The first language in Hong Kong is Cantonese and English is the second language. Hong Kong is a wealthy international economic city. Before 1/7/1997 Hong Kong was a colony of United Kingdom for a hundred years. Hong Kong is deeply affected by western culture and now Hong Kong youngsters are deeply affected by Japanese culture. Also traditional Chinese culture will influence adolescents in Hong Kong. Since Hong Kong has been influenced by many cultures, adolescents theoretically will have more choice of leisure activities.
Luzern is a city in Switzerland, which is located in central Europe. Luzern covers 1493 kilometers squared with 340 500 residents inside the Canton, but only 56984 residents in the city with only 16.3% aged between 0 and 19. (Discover Lucerne, 2001) The first language in Luzern is German and French is the second language. Luzern is a traditional cultural tourist destination city. Luzern is not an economic and financial city. Luzern is rooted in western culture and the range of leisure activities will theoretically be narrowed for adolescents. Because of the different culture, geography, location, environment and economic activities of Hong Kong and Luzern, it could be expected that it there are suitable places to explore differences in adolescent leisure.
.8 Methodology
This research will have secondary research from books, official documents and private documents from Internet and University Libraries in Hong Kong and Switzerland. Primary data will come from questionnaires. Two hundred and sixty questionnaires were distributed to adolescents in some secondary schools both in Hong Kong and Luzern.
2. Literature review
2.1 Introduction
From reviewing the literature sources in adolescent, it is evident that a lot of leisure research has been carried out on issues related to leisure and gender, race, social class, disability, age and sexual orientation. However there is little cross-cultural research on adolescent leisure, especially between Western culture and Eastern Culture.
2.2 What is adolescence?
Reuter's article in (1937:) tried to conceptualize adolescence as a specifically social phenomenon. He points out that 'growing into adulthood was stressful and adolescence was not a universal life-phase and the ages varied between cultures where adolescent was recognized'.
The age range of adolescence is usually defined from 12 to 18 but will differ from one person to another. One point of agreement between biologists, psychologists and sociologists is that adolescence cannot be defined in terms of precise age.
2.3 Different views on leisure definition
Most leisure theories ...
This is a preview of the whole essay
2.2 What is adolescence?
Reuter's article in (1937:) tried to conceptualize adolescence as a specifically social phenomenon. He points out that 'growing into adulthood was stressful and adolescence was not a universal life-phase and the ages varied between cultures where adolescent was recognized'.
The age range of adolescence is usually defined from 12 to 18 but will differ from one person to another. One point of agreement between biologists, psychologists and sociologists is that adolescence cannot be defined in terms of precise age.
2.3 Different views on leisure definition
Most leisure theories have developed in the twentieth century. There are many different social theories and it is difficult to prove that one is better than another. Writers in the leisure field, whether economists or sociologists mostly agree that leisure is difficult to define. From the different leisure definitions, which exist a number of key points can be summarized to four main leisure definitions as follows:
* Leisure as time
* Leisure as activities
* Leisure as an experience
* Leisure as a holistic concept
2.3.1 Leisure as time
Firstly, leisure as time, a dictionary's definition of 'leisure' is 'time at one's disposal' but this is a narrow way to define leisure. 'leisure is the time that used at a person's own discretion in variety of ways, when they have completed some obligation work such as study or work' (Doggett and O'Mahoney, 1991:1). 'Leisure is defined as free or un-obligated time during which one is not working or performing other life-sustaining functions' (Neulinger, Peterson, Maclean and Martin 1985:3). This definition is widely accepted nowadays. But this theory also has limitations. It is difficult to define working, because some people will see work as leisure. Also some life-sustaining functions may be defined as leisure such as eating out. Also it is difficult to define leisure as time because it is hard to differentiate between necessities and spare time.
2.3.2 Leisure as activities
Secondly, leisure as activity defines leisure as 'non-work activity' (Weiskopf, 1982:11). 'Leisure is activity which excluding the obligations of work, family, and society for individual to participate in leisure on their own choices in order to have relaxation, diversion, or broadening one's knowledge' (Dumazedier, 1967:). These theories all define leisure as activity and the relationship and differences with work. This concept can cause confusion. For example, one person's leisure activity may be another person's work. Therefore, to define leisure as activity is problematic.
2.3.3 Leisure as an experience
Leisure as experience is the interaction between individual and leisure. Kleiber, Larsen and Csikszentmihalyi, (1986) noted that 'individual experiences of leisure are defined by perceived freedom, intrinsic satisfaction and positive affect within an interaction'. deGrazia, (1972) suggested that 'Leisure and free time are different. Anybody can have free time but not everybody can have leisure. Free time is a realizable idea of democracy. Leisure is not fully realizable, and hence an ideal not alone an idea'. Thus: 'Leisure is experience that contains its own reward' (Neulinger, 1982). Although, this view of leisure as experience sounds logical and means it is easier to define differences between free-time, play and an intrinsically satisfying experience, it is weak because it is difficult to measure intrinsically satisfying experiences. Consequently, it is difficult for researchers to carry out research.
2.3.4 Leisure as a holistic concept
The holistic view of leisure asserts that 'leisure and work are interrelated and cannot be separated' (Murphy, 1975:12). Shaw, (1986:12) noted that 'according to the holistic view, leisure's elements can be found in work, education and other social aspects. As leisure is interrelated with work, education and other aspects of life, a holistic explanation or definition of leisure also includes an analysis of the concept of work and time'. The holistic theory gives a reasonable explanation of leisure. It is because the holistic view will consider many aspects that will influence definition of leisure such as time, work, education and other aspects of life. Generally, the holistic view of leisure makes it easier to do research because it recognises the complexity of leisure.
Although there are a number of ways of conceptualizing leisure, the most common definition relates to dimensions of work, time, activity, function and freedom but there is no signal explanation that gives a complete definition of leisure. The dimensions of work, time, activity, function and freedom show something important about the nature of leisure, which together can make for good explanations.
2.4 Youth and adolescent's leisure
2.4.1 Existing research in youth and adolescent leisure
Barker and Wright carried out early research on adolescent leisure in 1951 on the description of adolescent daily time use. Ellis & Rademacher, (1987); (Garton) & Pratt, (1987); Hultsman, (1993) and Iso-Ahola & Weissinger (1987) have researched adolescent leisure, in terms of individual choice, participation, boredom, and constraints in leisure. Flammer & Alsaker (1999) have done research on cross-cultural studies in European and American adolescent leisure. The previous research regarding adolescents' leisure neglect the cross-culture study between East and West.
2.4.2 Youth and adolescents' leisure
For most of us, leisure is defined as the time after work or school. Adolescents have a lot of free time after school, especially if they do not have a part-time job. Around 40% of adolescents' waking hours is spent in leisure activities (Steinberg, 1996). Some research shows that the adolescents have more time to spend on leisure. World Expo '88 found that discretionary leisure time available for girls was less than that available to boys, because of school homework and study tasks.
Savin, Williams and Berndt, (1990) noted that 'adolescent's activities are more peer focused and away from adults. Adolescents spend plenty of time together because they understand one another and share similar beliefs and interests. The majority of their time together is spent socializing and having leisure activities'. Actually, adolescents will tend to spend leisure time with their peers because of similar thinking and leisure interests. Also, most of the adolescents will see chatting with peers as a kind of leisure.
The wealth generated by economic growth has created rich workers, and enabled most young people to receive higher education rather than working. Higher wages and working wives have allowed parents to give more pocket money or allowance to their teen children. Roberts (1983) suggest that since the 1950s, schoolchildren have been recognized as an important leisure market. Some studies point out that young people have more leisure time than adults. Young people are the major spender in leisure. Young people's sources of pocket money and spare time make them the main market for leisure. Young people are strong purchasers of cinema and theatre tickets, occasional foods, sport equipments and most leisure products and services. Adolescents are the main target market of some leisure providers such as video and computer games, pop music, computer and Internet and skateboard providers. These are new forms of popular leisure activities among adolescents, which are not mentioned by Roberts 1983.
2.4.3 Why Adolescents participate in Leisure?
A lot of research has show that leisure makes a great contribution to adolescents' development during their transition from adolescence to adult. Hendry (1983) noted that 'It is widely claimed that positive leisure pursuits contribute to the development of self-fulfilled and mentally healthy young people'. Generally, the reasons for adolescents participating in leisure are to learn different skills, to maintain healthiness, to make more friends and to relax.
Steinberg, (1993); Silbereisen & Todt, (1994); Hendry, Shucksmith, Love, & Glendinning, (1993) and Dower et al., (1980) suggest that the reason for adolescents to participate in leisure is to learn variety of skills that they need for adult life such as independence skills, relationship skills and expression skills etc. However leisure activities will also help adolescents to reduce stress and to maintain healthiness.
2.4.4 Positive & negative adolescent leisure activities
Positive leisure activities
Leisure can be the main contributor for adolescent development. Kleiber, Larson and Csikszentmihalyi (1986) suggest that 'the use of free time in adolescence has an effect on adjustment to adulthood'. Caldwell (1993) noted that 'many leisure activities are positive for adolescent development but not all leisure activities are positive'.
Kleiber et al. (1986) describe positive leisure as 'transitional activities' because they prepare the adolescent for the transition to adulthood.
Transitional activity characteristics include:
* Structured/goal directed
* Involve challenge and high concentration
* Involve fun and freedom
Examples of transitional activities:
* Sports
* Learning a musical instrument
* Extracurricular activities
Iso-Ahola and Crowley (1991) state that involvement in these activities lessens the chance of boredom, which can also lessen the change of involving in harmful leisure activities such as drugs or alcohol use.
Negative leisure activities:
Kleiber et al., (1986) suggest that negative leisure involve little demand and concentration.
Examples of negative leisure:
* Watching TV/movies
* Listening to music
* Resting
Iso-Ahola and Crowley, (1991) noted that 'adolescents spend their time participating in negative activities that will cause boredom and may lead them to participate in risky behaviors such as using drugs or delinquent behaviors. Iso-Ahola and Crowley, (1991) notes that 'negative leisure activities do not cause adolescents to use drugs or take part in delinquent behaviors'. Overall, leisure is an important and positive experience for most adolescents. Actually, it is difficult to define which leisure activities are positive and negative. For example, watching television has been considered as negative leisure activity according to the concept by Kleiber et al., (1986) but watching educational television programs will consider as positive or negative leisure activity?
2.4.5 Adolescents' leisure activities behavior
'Adolescents engage in various activities every day. Common activities include hanging out with friends, talking on the telephone, participating in clubs or organizations, or working. Girls typically participate in interpersonal activities such as talking, while boys take part in more individualized activities' (Richards and Larson, 1989). Besides resting, adolescents divide most of their time into three different areas:
* Adults/ Parent---15% of the time
* School-------------23% of the time
* Leisure------------29% of the time
However, Steinberg, (1996) suggested that around 40% of adolescents' waking hours are spent in leisure activities. Which is quite different from the 29 % have being noted by Richards and Larson, (1989).
Leisure can then be separated into three additional categories:
* Socializing (hanging out with friends)-----40% of the time
* Maintenance (self-care)-----31% of the time
* Productive (volunteer work, homework)--29% of the time (Bigner, 1990)
In general, all adolescents have similar leisure, such as (Garton, 1991):
* Hanging out with friends
* Hanging out at malls, arcades, pool halls, movie theaters and street corners
* Talking on the phone
* Watching TV
* Listening to music
* Going to parties
* Participating in sports
Young People's Leisure and Lifestyle (1987) found that watching TV remains most popular leisure activities among most adolescents aged 13-20. Francoise & August, (1999) suggest that time spend in watching TV mainly affected by age and country.
Francoise & August, (1999) suggest that hang around with friends will be mainly affected by age and country and older adolescent tend to spend more time in hanging out with friends than young adolescents.
But Garton (1991) does not mention harmful leisure activities customary among youth and adolescents' such as drinking alcohol. Garton (1991) also ignores the different national, cultural and geographical factors that cause differences in adolescent leisure activities. Since the rapid change in technology at the 1990s, there are new leisure activities for youth and adolescents such as surfing on the Internet, online chatting and computer and video games. Also Garton (1991) does not realize that different ages and genders of adolescents will lead to different favorite leisure activities. On the other hand, Henry (1983:35) suggests that 'the main factors affecting leisure choices were age, gender and social class'. J.C. Coleman (1979:35) provides a model that looks inside the changing and differential pattern of youth leisure. He suggests that 'adolescent leisure will shift from adult-organized clubs and activities, through causal leisure pursuits to commercially organized leisure'. Therefore, adolescents in different age stages will have different leisure pursuits. But adolescents also will have some similar leisure between different ages.
2.4.6 Culture and adolescent leisure
Berry et al. (1992) give a definition of culture as the shared way of life of a group of people. They noted that 'people coming from two countries, showing differences in language, political system, historical background and so on, are considered as coming from two different cultures'. Francoise & August, (1999) noted that 'the influence of cultural factors is primarily mediated by other factors which are more indirect effects such as values, school system. The school system produces an environment to regulate the lives of students and offer different opportunities to their daily lives'. Thus, the different school system and culture will influence the adolescent leisure behavior. In the research into adolescent leisure in Hong Kong and Luzern, two cities from different cultures and with different school systems, it is likely that these will affect their leisure behavior.
2.4.7 Gender differences in adolescent leisure
Gender will cause difference in leisure behavior of adolescents. Girls are supposed to be more communication oriented, while boys are supposed to be independent, non-emotional, strong and aggressive. Girls are supposed to be more interested in fashion and clothes, and expect boys to be more interested in sports, both actively and passively (Garton, 1987). Recent research says that there is a strong tendency for boys to prefer sports and vigorous activities, while girls are more interested in hanging out at friend's houses, hanging out at the mall, or just talking on the phone. Girls tend to sit around and talk and engage in relatively passive activities (www.personal.psu.edu 12/09/2001). But from my point of view, nowadays boys will be more interested in playing games and girls will have more interest in online chatting. Young People's Leisure and Lifestyle (1987) found that adolescent girls more likely to involve in listening music and reading.
Newson and Newson (1976) and Roberts (1983) suggested that girls have less cash to spare than boys, because of less pocket money and allowance, plus higher self-maintenance costs and also less time, since girls are more likely be required to undertake household duties. Newson and Newson (1976) and Hobson (1979) suggest that girls usually will be disapproved by their parents going out for some leisure activities. But nowadays the money for boys and girls to spend on leisure will not be that different, because of the narrowing of differences of gender on leisure had been over time.
The difference in gender will affect adolescent spending their leisure time. Studies had done in Ireland (Fitzgerald, Joseph, Hayes, & O'Regan, 1995), Scotland (Smith, 1987), Australia (Garton & Pratt, 1991), the United Kingdom (Department of Education and Science, 1983), Sweden (Engstrom, 1974), and the United States (American Association of University Women [AAUW], 1990; Eccles & Harold, 1991; Kirshnit, Ham, & Richards, 1989) have shown that boys are more likely to participate in sports or to be interested in sports participation than are girls. Actually, boys are more likely to take part in sports than girl because of the physical differences.
2.4.8 Constraints on adolescent leisure
Roberts, (1983) noted that 'adolescence is a peak time of leisure needs for adolescents. Adolescents have more free time and opportunities but fewer responsibilities than at any other time of their lives. But young people will suffer from lack of spending power, lack of transport and also will stop by their parents or even legislation on youth leisure'. For Example, the Hong Kong Government make a law to disallow adolescents of less than 16 to go to discos because of the unsafe environment inside discos.
2.5 Summary
In short, after review of a variety of literature on adolescent leisure, we can see that leisure can help adolescents to develop a variety of skills they need for adult lives. Today's adolescents have more choice of leisure activities since the development of technology, especially computer technology that they tend to accept easily and quickly. Therefore, a lot of technology companies see adolescents as the main target market such as Playstation and National. Leisure can have both positive and negative impacts on adolescents but generally, the positive impacts will be far more than negative impacts. Also different adolescents in different societies will have differences in their leisure.
3. Methodology
3.1 Secondary data
This dissertation is about the comparison of adolescent leisure in Hong Kong and Luzern. The secondary data for the literature and statistics had been found on books from Hong Kong Polytechnic University's library, school's library, and public library in Zurich and online books which are related to leisure, youth and leisure and adolescents. Other secondary data for the literature review and statistics are on-line journals from (search.epnet.com & www.google.com) which are related to adolescents and leisure (www.leisurestudies.uiuc.edu & www.personal.psu.edu).
The literature can be categerired into three main parts:
. Literature on adolescence
2. Literature on definition of leisure
3. Literature on adolescents and leisure
The main parts to arise from the literature review are:
. Existed researches in youth and adolescent leisure
2. Youth and adolescents leisure
3. Why Adolescents participate in Leisure?
4. Positive & negative Leisure Activities
5. Adolescent's leisure activities behavior
6. Culture and adolescent leisure
7. Gender differences in adolescent leisure
8. Constraints in adolescent leisure
3.2 Primary data
3.2.1 Procedure
In order to gathering the best primary data for this dissertation, the important issues are to consider who will be your target respondents and where will they appear? The target respondents of this research are adolescents aged between 12 and 18. During this period of time they are usually still studying at schools. Consequently, the target respondents will be students in secondary schools. Then, the next step is to decide which research methods to adopt so as to gather valuable and meaningful primary data for the analysis. After careful consideration a questionnaire was choicer as the best research method for this research. It is because questionnaires can collect more information. The questions in the questionnaire are in the main open questions, only some closed question has been asked. There were both qualitative and quantitative. After designing the questionnaire, school in both Hong Kong and Luzern were cont so as to gain the agreement on issuing the questionnaire.
Two e-mails and phone calls were made to two secondary schools in Hong Kong to ask for permission to distribute questionnaires in their schools. After that the questionnaires were sent to the Principals in these two schools in order to gain their agreement on doing the questionnaire. After gaining permission from the Principals then the questionnaire was sent to friends in Hong Kong who helped me to make enough copies of questionnaires, distribute to the schools, and collect the questionnaires and send back to me.
For schools in Luzern five visits were made to local school with invitation letters and a questionnaire to the Director of the schools in order to gain agreement on the questionnaire issue. Three school's director agreed on doing questionnaires in their school. After gaining the agreement on the questionnaire, enough copies were distributed to these schools and then a week later collected by hand. The design of the questionnaire also has to consider the language barriers since the different language between Hong Kong and Luzern. The questionnaire for adolescents in Hong Kong was displayed both in English and Chinese. However, the questionnaire for adolescents in Luzern was displayed in German.
In order to show appreciation for the schools that participated in this research, some thank you cards were sent to the Principals in these schools.
3.2.2 Sample
This dissertation will use questionnaire to do the primary research. The sample consisted of adolescents between the ages of 12 years and 18 years. The sample had been drawn from two secondary schools in Hong Kong and one primary school, one secondary schools and one high school in Luzern. In Hong Kong one class had been chosen from two secondary schools from Secondary 1 to Secondary 7. In Luzern one class had been picked out from each School or college from Primary 6 to high school 3. In total, 520 questionnaires had been distributed to both schools in Hong Kong and schools in Luzern in the same proportion.
3.2.3 Result
There were 121 Male and 109 Female from Hong Kong and 119 Male and 117 Female from Luzern who responded to the questionnaire. The total number of respondents in Hong Kong is 230 out of 260 and the response rate is 88%. The total number of respondents in Luzern is 236 out of 260 and the response rate is 90%. Overall, the total number of respondents is 466 out of 520 and the response rate is 89%.
3.2.4 How to analyse questionnaires
An analysis sheet had been designed to count the results of the questionnaires. After collecting all the questionnaires the sample was divided into two groups Hong Kong and Luzern, and then categorized into different age groups from 12 to 18, and then divided into male and female. After that there were 28 groups of questionnaires.
3.3 Limitations
The e-mail questionnaires actually have very low reply rate, therefore school had been selected to take care of the questionnaire in order to ensure the high response rate. But choose of schools to do this research will cause limitation. It is because not all adolescent will still at school during adolescence. Some of them may be go out for work. Therefore, the working adolescent will not appear in this research. However, doing research in schools for this dissertation will only cause little limitations. Since, Hong Kong and Luzern both wealthy cities in the world the adolescent is more likely to have more and higher education, most of the adolescent will still study during adolescence. Also, the range of ages of students in those schools is between 12 and 18 so the sample will have adolescent from all adolescence ages.
The main limitation of this research is language, that also the main limitation of the cross-culture study. Since, the research had been carried out in the different language speaking cities. First of all, the questionnaire had been designed in English but in Hong Kong English is the second language and some adolescents may not understand some of the questions so the questions have to be displayed in both English and Chinese. However, Luzern is a German-speaking city. Majority of the adolescent cannot speak and understand English. Since, I have been to the Luzern city center and speak to 12 adolescents and all of them cannot speak and understand English. Hence, the questionnaires had been translated into German by computer software and proof reading by German lecture.
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