Why and how do individual speakers of English vary the way they speak on different occasions?

University Degree Education and Teaching

Introduction

Speakers of English adapt their language used in different situations. They may vary the style in the use of English or in other cases, switch between English and other languages. In a discourse community, members always share common linguistic variables and exhibit common directions of style shifting or code switching.

Spoken English is subject to more variations than written English since the standard forms of English that have been codified tend to come from written English. Therefore, I will focus on the discussion of the variation of spoken English in this essay.

Style-shifting

Speakers shift styles in English according to different occasions. Styles differ in several dimensions: pronunciation, choice of words and grammatical features. Style shifting is caused by the change in audience, format, setting, and topic. Other factors such as the identity, feeling of speakers also influence the speakers’ choice.

Several studies show that audience has significant influence on the style of language a speaker selects. Allan Bell's (1991) audience design theory suggests whom you are speaking to has the greatest influence on the type of language you use. In 1970s, Bell studied the varieties of English used by newsreaders on New Zealand radio stations. She found that their pronunciation differed on different stations. Bell discovered that the more 'formal' [t] pronunciation was used frequently on a station with a mainly 'educated' or 'professional' audience, but obviously less on 'general audience ' stations, and extremely least on rock music stations. Bell claims that it is the different audiences for each station that affect newsreaders' speech. It tells that speakers used more 'prestige' or ‘high-status’language when talking to people of higher social status.

Peter Trudgill (1986) studied his own speaking style in an interview with informants from different social backgrounds. It was found that more glottal stops were used when talking to male informants. He documented his own style shifting to match the style of the audience. Nikolas Coupland (1984) analyzed the speech of an assistant in a travel agency in Cardiff. He found that her pronunciation mirrored that of her clients. These studies are in line with the accommodation theory, which suggests that speakers will converge towards their interlocutor when they wish to reduce social distance, whereas they will diverge when they wish to emphasize their distinctiveness or increase social distance. In both of Trudgill’s and Coupland’s studies, speakers were converging towards the speech of their interlocutors.

The format of interaction also plays an important role in style shifting. In 1986, Viv Edward’s study found that format as well as audience affect people’s speech. In the study, speakers varied their style not only among audiences, but also when speaking to the same audience in a different format. Far less Patois features appeared in a formal interview when compared with an informal conversation. As a result, Patois features occurred least in the formal interview with the white researcher and they occurred most in the informal conversation with only black fieldworker.

William Labov also found that ...

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William Labov also found that the‘prestige’pronunciation of non-prevocalic /r/ occurred more frequently in formal reading tasks than in unplanned, conversational speech. The reason behind is that in formal reading tasks, speakers are more aware of prestige accent features and they will use them in speaking styles demanding a high degree of attention. Besides, lower class speakers maximized their use of this pronunciation in situations in which they paid considerable attention to their speech. They wanted to be accepted and recognized as members of the upper middle class.

Another study by Jenny Cheshire's looked at the influence of setting. A group of students was observed at school and out of school. Fewer vernacular features were used at school than in a local playground. However, other factors such as their feeling about the school, familiarity with school and knowledge of school conventions also influence style choice. Therefore, students who liked school or identified with school culture were more likely to use standard forms than students who did not like or identify with school.

Style shifting is also related to the topic of discussion. Michael Huspek analyzed a group of lumber workers in north-west USA. He found that in a single conversation, speakers switched from an informal pronunciation‘-in ’to a more formal pronunciation‘-ing’when a scientific topic was discussed. Therefore, speakers are found to shift styles within a single conversation as different topics are introduced. More formal language features are used when talking about formal topics. Huspek also suggests that feelings about people and events also influence the language spoken. The‘-ing’may be used when talking to someone respected by the speaker.

The desire to identify with, or distinguish oneself from, particular social groups is another reason to shift styles. It is suggested by R.B. Page and Andree Tabouret-Keller who carried out a study in multilingual communities. Based on these ideas, Trudgill (1983) found that British rock and pop singers in the 1950s modified their pronunciations in songs to make them sound more‘American’. On the other hand, folk singers adopted rural accents and reggae singers sounded more Jamaican. In USA, singers also modified their accents to imitate South Americans and the Blacks whom the origin of popular music comes from. In the 1970s, punk music was associated with urban working class life. So punk-rock singers adopted certain low-prestige southern English features in their songs.

In fact, The speakers’ choice is not caused by a single reason and it is always a mixture of several different motives. Therefore, the styles a speaker chooses for particular audiences, formats, settings, and topics are subject to change.

Codeswitching

In this part of the essay, let's discuss why and how do speakers switch between English and other languages in different contexts.

Myers-Scotton's(1989) markedness model points out that different codes are associated with different contexts. Code switching can maintain or negotiate certain type of social identity. Therefore, there are different reasons for code switching. Firstly, code-switching between languages allows speakers simultaneous access to right and obligations associated with different social identities. Secondly, switching may operate to initiate a change to relationships. Thirdly, switching may negotiate identities in relation to others when it is uncertain about relationships. Fourthly, switching may fulfil specific functions in an interaction.

Myers-Scotton (1989) suggests that there are two different types of codeswitching based on the notion of 'markedness'. An 'unmarked' choice is an expected choice that is related to the interaction between the speaker and the interlocutor. The other type is a 'marked' choice that is an attempt to redefine a relationship.

One of the examples from Myers-Scotton's research found that a school principal switched between Swahili and English when he visited a friend in Nairobi. He spoke Swahili with the guard at the gate, whereas he switched to English with the receptionist inside the office. This is an 'unmarked' language choice. The change of codes shows the principal's change identity in different situation, from a friendly visitor to the identity of a principal.

Another example is that Myers-Scotton found that a young man came to the manager's office in Nairobi. The young man began in English but the manager insisted to speak in Swahili. This is an example of a 'marked' language choice. His change of code showed that he deliberately denied the young man's negotiation of the higher status associated with English and increased social distance between them.

In Quebec, French has been the language of work since 1970. In this case codeswitching allows anglophones some claim on the rights and obligations associated with French.(Monica Heller,1988) For example, in an official interaction as department meetings, if francophones only speak French, they will arouse hostility among anglophones. However, if the francophones speak only English, their legitimacy is undermined. In order to reduce social distance and build a harmonic interpersonal relationship, the francophones switch between French in English.

She also suggests that in Kenya, English can encode both social distance and solidarity, depending on the context (1988). One of her researches in 'unmarked switching' found out that speakers switched from Kenya and Zimbabwe. In this case, speakers balanced different aspects of their identity by switching between an African language and English.

Seba(1993) found that young British black speakers switched routinely between Creole and London English. It is also related to different aspects of a speaker's identity. In a Creole conversation, a switch to English may be used for an aside. However, if a speaker switches from English to Creole, he will expect the interlocutor to give response. Besides, Creole reflects the intimate relationship between the two parties. Their conversation is talking about something close to the 'heart and mind'.( 1993 )

Rajeshwari Pandharipande(1990) points out those speakers in Maharashtra, a state in northern India, frequently switch between Marathi and English when they discuss formal topics such as modern technology, higher education and media. This is definitely the same motivation for monolingual speakers when they shift their speech style.

When speakers code switch, it involves the mixture of two or more languages. According to Shana Poplack(1980), a switch from one language to another would occur at points where the surface structure of the two languages maps on to each other. For example, in the switch from French to English, the whole clauses are switched. English grammar is observed within the switched text. In the Hindu/English example, single words from English are switched.

On the other hand, Myers-Scotton’s ‘matrix language frame model’ suggests that within any stretch of codeswitching, one language prevails the other and becomes the matrix language. It provides the framework and affects the form of codeswitching. embeds the other language. When single words from another language are embedded, the matrix language order applies, and the matrix language also supplies syntactically relevant morphemes.

Code-switching is commonly found in Hong Kong. People in Hong Kong switch between English and Cantonese in their speech ranging from tutorial discussion in tertiary institutions, formal and informal conversational, television and radio broadcasting. A common pattern in Cantonese-English is a single English words surrounded by other Cantonese constituents.

Cantonese is the mother tongue of most of the people in Hong Kong, whereas, English is their second language. In fact, both languages have distinctive functions. English is the official language for years and is widely used in business sector. Besides, its use is encouraged throughout the education system. All these aim at retaining Hong Kong's place as a world trade center and an international city. The use of Chinese is an important marker of Chinese identity. Besides, Cantonese is the mother tongue of most of our student and teachers. Even though students and teachers admit that having English as a medium of instruction may improve their English proficiency and career prospects, the reality is that most of the time, code-mix of English and Chinese, or code switch from English to Chinese always happen in teaching. Therefore, students will be able to gain access in Cantonese to whatever information they need to know.(Steve Walters and John Balla, 1988)) For handling students with behaviour problem, code-mix of English and Chinese, or code switch from English to Chinese is used as a medium of instruction also help reduce distance between teachers and students

Conclusion

If we compare the difference between style shifting and codeswitching, it is clear that monolinguals style shift, but bilinguals can do more than style shift; they can code-switch. Speakers can adopt styles and codes to communicate social meanings and negotiate relationships. Actually, speakers of both types are very creative. Sometimes, they even create the kind of language they need to suit the environment. They can even adapt according to different situation to take on particular identities.

The use of the languages varies from time to time. Style-shifting and codeswitching serve multi-purposes. They help us to define relationship, seek for personal identity, improve interpersonal relationship. Most important of all, they enable us to adjust and adapt to the environment we are in.

(About 1,900 words)

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