For instances where victims are unwilling to participate, traditional criminal justice processes can be utilized, but with the option of engagement of RJ at any stage. The success of RJ is reliant upon it becoming the ‘norm’ rather than the exception, with pecuniary measures only being utilized as a last resort; something that is increasingly being demanded by victims of serious crime.
6.2 Perpetrators.
RJ seeks to encourage the perpetrator to acknowledge and accept responsibility for the harm they have caused, and to make amends. In many cases, perpetrators are victims themselves who resent a community perceived to be uncaring toward their own harm. Child abuse is recognized as a predominant causal factor in serious crime, and the community, through a retributive system, continues to ignore and punish the perpetrator/victim which only exacerbates feelings of exclusion, anti-social behaviour and recidivism. The perpetrator develops a perception that they are victims of society, with consequential victim reactions – anger, insecurity, fear, hopelessness, exclusion and low self esteem.
RJ provides the opportunity for the perpetrator/victim to have their harm acknowledged and recognized with both respect and support through conferencing. RJ does not excuse their behaviour, and particularly in the case of serious crime, conferencing can be extremely arduous and confronting for them. To face people they have caused
severe harm to without the ‘legal barriers’ to protect them is not easy, but it has already proven to be highly satisfying and rewarding for all concerned. It enables the victim and perpetrator to reach resolution and reparation in their own terms, in often only symbolic terms with little in the way of financial compensation, but in a way that is most important to both parties.
RJ may pose some dangers to perpetrators including potential loss of statutory rights, the presumption of innocence, exposure to heavier penalties, dispensing with procedural fairness and accountability, and ‘net widening’ where insufficient evidence exists to prosecute under a retributive system, but action is taken under a restorative system. This is particularly evident in cases of serious crime where there is considerable political and public pressure to ‘get a result’.
However, such concerns are largely alleviated through voluntary participation, skilled and trained mediators, effective screening and monitoring, personal support, and
adequate resources. Research has established that perpetrators of serious crime, as for victims, equally need specialized support practitioners, in addition to family or friends. The process requires voluntary participation at all stages, and perpetrators may seek legal advice prior to committing themselves to a conferencing agreement.
6.3 The Community.
RJ seeks to manage deviate behaviour and restore harm in its social context through inclusionary principles; reintegration (not exclusion) is the driving force even for serious crimes. In this way it attempts to restore positive peer guidance for behaviour compliance within their community, and allocate joint ‘ownership’ of social issues.
RJ can be contrasted with sound parenting techniques. Deviate behaviour within a ‘functional’ family (or society) is addressed by focusing on the behaviour (not the person) in a loving and supporting way. Misbehaviour is addressed, harm is
recognized and the child’s (or perpetrator’s) integration within the family remains strong. The child (or perpetrator) seeks to correct misbehaviour due to positive and inclusive peer guidance.
Engaging family, friends and members of the community in the process of RJ mirrors this functional family approach – it simply makes common sense. Participants may be able to provide ongoing support and help to alleviate or resolve any causal factors that led to the deviate behaviour. Help could be in the form of housing, employment or just emotional support.
6.4 Limitations for RJ or Limitations for All?
Serious crime presents considerable difficulties for RJ; but it also presents similar difficulties to retributive justice; difficulties it largely has failed to cope with. Some victims are unable to come to terms with the harm they have suffered and RJ will not be acceptable to them. Some perpetrators are so damaged by life and are so dangerous that RJ will simply not be an option. In these cases, retributive justice, as the
exception, should remain to act as a collaborative ‘failsafe’ but still with the ability to activate RJ throughout any stage of the process.
VII CONCLUSION.
RJ faces limitations and problems in dealing with issues of serious crime. Critical issues for victims may involve power imbalance, involvement of family, and possible misuse of the process by the perpetrator. Perpetrators also face potential issues with a reduction of procedural and human rights protection, even heavier sanctions.
However, most if not all the limitations and problems can be resolved or overcome through the provision of competent and skilled staff, adequate resourcing, and strong support mechanisms for all participants.
The cold, hard reality of modern society has shown the existing retributive justice system is highly ineffective at achieving the goals of justice. It punishes, excludes
and fails to meet the needs of both the victim and the perpetrator; it represents a ‘dysfunctional’ approach to managing deviate behaviour.
There will always be exceptions and difficult cases, the principle question in this debate is, what should be the standard of justice for all crime, not just serious crime?
RJ offers a positive alternative that focuses on restoring relationships and repairing the harm in its social context; it represents the ‘functional’ family approach, not without its vulnerabilities and issues, but generally achieving more positive outcomes for all concerned.
When will our consciences grow so tender that
we will act to prevent human misery rather than avenge it? ~
finis
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Articles/Books/Reports.
Aertsen, Ivo, Daems, Tom & Robert, Luc (eds), Institutionalizing Restorative Justice (2005) Willan Publishing, UK.
American Prosecutors Research Institute, Investigation and Prosecution of Child Abuse (2003) Sage Publishing, USA.
Amstutz, Mark, International Ethics: Concepts, Theories, and Cases in Global Politics (2005) Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, USA.
Bartol, Curt & Anne, Current Perspectives in Forensic Psychology and Criminal Behaviour (2008) Sage Publishing, USA.
Barton, Charles, Restorative Justice: The Empowerment Model (2003) Federation Press, Australia.
Beck, Elizabeth, Britto, Sarah & Andrews, Arlene, In the Shadow of Death: Restorative Justice & Death Row Families (2007) Oxford University Press, USA.
Blackler, John, Ethical Issues in Policing (2005) Ashgate Publishing Ltd, UK.
Blackstone, Sir William, Commentaries on the Laws of England: Volume 1 of the Rights of Persons (1765) Clarendon Press, UK.
Braithwaite, John, ‘Restorative Justice and a Better Future’ (1996) 1(76) Dalhousie Review 9.
Braitwaite, John, Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation (2002) Oxford University Press, USA.
Clear, Todd & Karp, David, What is Community Justice? Case Studies of Restorative Justice and Community Supervision (2002) Sage Publishing, USA.
Council of Europe, Rebuilding Community Connections – Mediations and Restorative Justice in Europe (2004) Council of Europe Publications.
Crenshaw, Wes, Treating Families and Children in the Child Protective System (2004) Routledge, USA.
Dandurand, Yvon & Griffiths, Curt, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Handbook on Restorative Justice Programmes (2006) United Nations Publications.
Day, James & Laufer, William, Crime, Value and Religion (1987) Greenwood Publishing Group, USA.
Davis, Henry (transl), The Works of Plato: A New and Literal Reading, Volume II (1888) George Bell & Sons, UK.
De Voltaire, M, A Philosophical Dictionary (1843) E. Truelove, UK.
Dickson-Gilmore, Jane & La Prairie, Carol, Will the Circle be Unbroken? Aboriginal Communities, Restorative Justice, and the Challenges of Conflict and Change (2005) University of Toronto Press, Canada.
Elliott, Elizabeth & Gordon, Robert, New Directions in Restorative Justice: Issues, Practice, Evaluation (2005) Willan Publishing, UK.
Figley, Charles, Trauma and its Wake: The Study and Treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (1985) Psychology Press, UK.
Findlay, Mark, Henham, Ralph, Transforming International Criminal Justice: Retributive and Restorative Justice in the Trial Process (2005) Willan Publishing, UK.
Galaway, Burt & Hudson, Joe (eds), Restorative Justice: International Perspectives (1996) Criminal Justice Press, USA.
Gavrielides, Theo, Restorative Justice: Theory and Practice – Addressing the Discrepancy (2007) Criminal Justice Press, USA.
Ghandi, Mahatma, in Broomfield, John, Other Ways of Knowing (1997) Inner Traditions/Bear Company, USA.
Goodey, Jo Victims and Victimology: Research, Policy and Practice (2005) Pearson Longman, USA.
Greene, Jack, The Encyclopedia of Police Science (2006) CRC Press, USA.
Hadley, Michael, The Spiritual Roots of Restorative Justice (2001) Suny Press, USA.
Heiland, Hans-Günther, Shelley, Louise & Katō, Hisao (eds), Crime and Control in Comparative Perspectives (1992) Walter de Gruyter, Germany.
Herrman, Margaret (ed), The Blackwell Handbook of Mediation: Bridging Theory, Research & Practice (2005) Wiley-Blackwell, UK.
Johnstone, Gerry, Restorative Justice: Ideas, Values, Debates (2005) Willan Publishing, UK.
Johnstone, Gerry, A Restorative Justice Reader: Texts, Sources, Contexts (2003) Willan Publishing, UK.
Johnstone, Gerry & Van Ness, Daniel (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) Willan Publishing, UK.
Jowett, B (trans), The Politics of Aristotle: Book I (1885) Clarendon Press, UK.
Karmen, Andrew, Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology (6th ed, 2007) Thomson Wadsworth, USA.
Lash, Joseph, Eleanor Roosevelt: A Friend’s Memoir (1964) Doubleday, United States.
Levinson, David, Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment (2002) Sage Publishing, USA.
Loy, David, The Great Awakening: A Buddhist Social Theory (2003) Wisdom Publications, Canada.
Macionis, John & Plummer, Ken, Sociology: A Global Introduction (2005) Prentice Hall Publishing, USA.
Maguire, Mike & Pointing, John, Victims of Crime: A New Deal? (1988) Open University Press, Europe.
MCC US Office of Criminal Justice, New Perspectives on Crime and Justice (1985).
McLaughlin, Eugene, Restorative Justice: Critical Issues (2003) Criminal Justice Press, USA.
Mead, George, ‘The Psychology of Punitive Justice’ (1918) American Journal of Sociology 23.
Morris, Allison & Maxwell, Gabrielle (eds), Restorative Justice for Juveniles: Conferencing, Mediation and Circles (2001) Hart Publishing, USA.
Morris, Ruth, Stories of Transformative Justice (2000) Canadian Scholars’ Press, Canada.
Perry, John, Repairing Communities Through Restorative Justice (2002) American Correctional Association, USA.
Piaget, Jean, The Moral Judgment of the Child (1999) Routledge Publishing, UK.
Regoli, Robert & Hewitt, John, Exploring Criminal Justice: The Essentials (2009) Jones & Bartlett Publishers, USA.
Reid, Sue, Crime and Criminology (1982) Holt, Rhinehart & Winston, USA.
Richardson, Sue & Bacon, Heather, Creative Responses to Child Sexual Abuse: Challenges and Dilemmas (2003) Jessica Kingsley Publishers, USA.
Roberts, Albert, Critical Issues In Crime and Justice (2003) Sage Publishing, USA.
Rosenberg, Marshall, Speak Peace in a World of Conflict: What You Say Next Will Change Your World (2005) Puddle Dancer Press, USA.
Rotberg, Robert & Dennis Thompson, Truth v Justice: The Morality of Truth Commissions (2000) Princeton University Press, USA.
Schurink, W, Snyman, I & Krugel, W, Victimization: Nature & Trends (1992) HSRC Press, South Africa.
Shoham, Shlomo, Beck, Ori & Kett, Martin, International Handbook of Penology and Criminal Justice (2007) CRC Press, USA.
South Australia Police Sexual Assault Unit(SAU), Sex Crime Investigators Handbook (1992) SA Police SAU Unit.
Spencer, David & Brogan, Michael, Mediation Law and Practice (2006) Cambridge University Press, UK.
Stephen, Sir James, A Digest of the Criminal Law (Indictable Offences (1950) Sweet & Maxwell Ltd, UK.
Strang, Heather & Braitwaite, John, Restorative Justice and Civil Society (2001) Cambridge University Press, UK.
Strang, Heather, Repair or Revenge: Victims & Restorative Justice (2002) Oxford University Press, UK.
Strang, Heather, & Braithwaite, John, Restorative Justice and Family Violence (2002) Cambridge University Press, UK.
Sullivan, Dennis & Tifft, Larry, Handbook of Restorative Justice: A Global Perspective (2006) Routledge Publishing, UK.
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, Enhancing Urban Safety and Security: Global Report on Human Settlements (2007) Earthscan, UK.
US Department of Justice, Report to the Nation on Crime and Justice (2nd ed, 1988) Diane Publishing, USA.
Vattel, MD, The Law of Nations; or Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns (1820) Simeon Butler, USA.
Walgrave, Lode (ed), Repositioning Restorative Justice (2003) Willan Publishing, UK.
Walgrave, Lode, Restorative Justice, Self-Interest and Responsible Citizenship (2008) Willan Publishing, UK.
Weitekamp, Elmar & Kerner, Hans-Jürgen (eds), Restorative Justice in Context: International Practice and Directions (2003) Willan Publishing, UK.
Whitman, James, Harsh Justice: Criminal Punishment and the Widening Divide Between America and Europe (2005) Oxford University Press, USA.
Williams, Brian, Working with Victims of Crime: Policies, Politics and Practice (1999) Jessica Kingsley Publishers, USA.
Worthington, Everett (ed), Handbook of Forgiveness (2005) CRC Press, USA.
Zehr, Howard & Toews, Barb, Critical Issues in Restorative Justice (2004) Criminal Justice Press, USA.
Zernova, Margarita, Restorative Justice: Ideals and Realities (2007) Ashgate Publishing, UK.
2. Legislation
Crimes Act 1900 (NSW)
Crimes (Serious Sex Offenders) Act 2006 (NSW)
Crime and Misconduct Act 2001 (Qld)
Summary Offences Act 1985 (SA)
Crimes Act 1914 (Cth)
3. Other Sources
ABC, ‘Bikie Gangs a Serious Crime Threat: ACC’, ABC News, 24 March 2009, <> at 2 April 2009,
Griffiths, Mark, Working with Serious Violent Crime Using Restorative Justice Conferencing (2004) Jesuit Social Services New Zealand Conference Paper, <> at 2 April 2009.
Heads of Commonwealth Operational Law Enforcement Agencies (HOCOLEA), Serious Crime – Attachment 2 (2007) Australian Attorney General’s Department, <> 2 April 2009.
LawLink NSW, About Us: Our Role, Our Vision (2009) Attorney General’s Department NSW, <> at 2 April 2009.
Sydney Morning Herald, ‘Media Are Tough On Crime And Rough On Justice’, SMH Opinion, 24 October 2008, <> at 2 April 2009.
Rugge, Tanya & Cormier, Robert, ‘Restorative Justice in the Case of Serious Crimes: An Evaluation’ (Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on Restorative Justice ‘Best Practices in Restorative Justice’, Vancouver, British Columbia, 1-3 June 2003)
Rugge, Tanya, ‘Restorative Justice in Cases of Serious Crime’ (Research Summary Volume 10/4, Public Safety Canada, 2005) <> at 2 April 2009,
Walgrave, Lode, ‘Building a Global Alliance for Restorative Practices and Family Empowerment’ (Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on Conferencing, Circles and other Restorative Practices, Veldhoven, Netherlands, 28-30 August 2003) <> at 2 April 2009.
Wachtel, Ted, ‘Restorative Conferencing for Serious Offences: An Exploration’ (Speech delivered at the International Conference on Serious Violence and Restorative Justice, Bar Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel, March 2006),
EPILOGUE A Personal Note (not part of assessment)
I have provided this epilogue in support of Restorative Justice principles based on my personal experiences.
My background as a former police officer of 22 years with SA Police provided me with the opportunity to see justice from both a retributive and restorative perspective.
My final posting was at a single person station in the country, and it enabled me to put my personal beliefs in RJ into practice; something that was largely precluded in the city.
The strongest example in application to serious crime follows:
A young man moved into our community who had severe behavioural issues with an extensive criminal history and propensity for extreme violence. ‘Dave’ had experienced considerable adversity in the nearest regional town, particularly with police (including threats with firearms and rough handling). This became a focal point for his anger which reached a high point one late afternoon where he began running around his yard with a knife screaming and waving it in the air. I arrived and he threatened me (I kept my distance) but I spent the time to calm him down and worked through everything that was bothering him. (not always possible with some people unfortunately) It was a turning point. It was the first time anyone had sat down with him and listened, it was also the first time anyone in the criminal justice system had treated him with respect and understanding. Despite technical breaches of some very serious offences I felt Dave needed help instead of punishment. So we moved on and looked toward stabilizing his future in the community without initiating formal action against him (I played the incident down to a minor disturbance for the bosses). My aim was inclusion rather than exclusion. Once I was happy he was calm I left, but kept contact with him virtually on a daily basis during my ‘rounds’ (plenty of these in a country station!). I later helped him get local work and also quietly prevented previous criminal associates from dragging him back into their social group…at Dave’s request. This involved liaison with Correctional Services who modified the associate’s parole conditions to prevent further contact.
Dave had a couple of minor episodes after that but they were all resolved in the same manner. At Christmas time I gave him a present – a small pocketknife (seems a bit strange I know considering his previous violence) but it was symbolic of trust and faith in him and it was pivotal in the restoration of his dignity. After 12 months of stable living he left Quorn and got a good job in Queensland, married and never looked back.
Twelve months after he left I received a telephone call from his mother in Melbourne. She had not seen her son for over 10 years, but that he had re-contacted her and finally told her about the traumatic events in his childhood that had led to his violent behaviour; things he had never told her before. In a very teary conversation, she said that our short friendship had enabled Dave to come to terms with his life and move on, and that she finally had her son back.
In the many years sitting in court and watching cases unfold, I became increasingly despondent with the manner in which victims and perpetrators were handled by the criminal justice system. It is a system so impersonal and devoid of human emotion, yet it deals with some of the most personal and emotionally traumatic events in peoples lives. Justice cannot be done in a contextual vacuum and is largely why most victims and perpetrators I have encountered (in excess of 10,000) hold no faith in the process or system.
RJ is a different approach, it can be difficult at first, but it actually makes life a lot easier and more rewarding once established ~ it offers new vision and opportunity and should be embraced.
Mahatma Ghandi in John Broomfield, Other Ways of Knowing (1997) 191.
Gerry Johnstone, Restorative Justice: Ideas, Values, Debates (2005) 7-8, 29-32,
Mark Griffiths, Working with Serious Violent Crime Using Restorative Justice Conferencing (2004) Jesuit Social Services New Zealand Conference Paper, <> at 2 April 2009, 3,
Tanya Rugge & Robert Cormier, ‘Restorative Justice in Cases of Serious Crime: An Evaluation’ in Elizabeth Elliott & Robert Gordon, New Directions in Restorative Justice: Issues, Practice, Evaluation (2005) 268,
Elizabeth Beck, Sarah Britto & Arlene Andrews, In the Shadow of Death: Restorative Justice & Death Row Families (2007) 138,
Lode Walgrave, Restorative Justice, Self-Interest and Responsible Citizenship (2008) 132.
Gerry Johnstone, ‘Critical Perspectives on Restorative Justice’ in Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) 602-607,
Johnstone, above n 2, 10-11, 29-32.
Johnstone, above n 2, 5-9 & 24,
Elliott, above n 2, xix,
Heather Strang, Repair or Revenge: Victims & Restorative Justice (2002) 203.
Johnstone, above n 2, 5-9,
Ivo Aertsen, Tom Daems & Luc Robert (eds), Institutionalizing Restorative Justice (2005) 152,
Howard Zehr & Barb Toews, Critical Issues in Restorative Justice (2004) 351.
Donna Coker, ‘Transformative Justice’ in Heather Strang & John Braithwaite, Restorative Justice & Family Violence (2002) 133,
Peter Lindström, ‘ Zero Tolerance Criminal Policy and Restorative Justice: a Hidden Link?’ in Elmar Weitekamp & Hans-Jürgen Kerner, Restorative Justice in Context: International Practice and Directions (2003) 285-286,
Howard Zehr, ‘Retributive Justice, Restorative Justice’ in MCC US Office of Criminal Justice, New Perspectives on Crime and Justice (1985) 1-15.
Johnstone, above n 2, 109,
Coker, above n 6, 133,
Lindström, above n 6, 285-286.
Theo Gavrielides, Restorative Justice: Theory and Practice – Addressing the Discrepancy (2007) 11,
Lode Walgrave (ed), Repositioning Restorative Justice (2003) 170.
Johnstone, above n 2, 95.
LawLink NSW, About Us: Our Role, Our Vision (2009) Attorney General’s Department NSW, <> at 2 April 2009.
LawLink NSW, above n 8,
Dennis Sullivan & Larry Tifft, Handbook of Restorative Justice: A Global Perspective (2006) 389,
John Perry, Repairing Communities Through Restorative Justice (2002) 198.
John Braitwaite, Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation (2002) 95-98,
B Jowett (trans), The Politics of Aristotle: Book I (1885) 1-2,
M De Voltaire, A Philosophical Dictionary (1843) 117 & 124,
M D Vattel, The Law of Nations; or Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns (1820) 134 & 135,
Perry, above n 12, 198,
Everett Worthington (ed), Handbook of Forgiveness (2005) 482,
Henry Davis (transl), The Works of Plato: A New and Literal Reading, Volume II (1888) 35-45,
Gwendolyn Cuizon, What is Justice: Socrates' Non-consequentialist View on Justice (2009) <> at 22 March 2009.
Examples include: Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 4 & 311,
Crimes (Serious Sex Offenders) Act 2006 (NSW) s 5(1),
Crime and Misconduct Act 2001 (Qld) Sch 2,
Summary Offences Act 1985 (SA) s 4,
Crimes Act 1914 (Cth) s 3C.
ABC, ‘Bikie Gangs a Serious Crime Threat: ACC’, ABC News, 24 March 2009, <> at 2 April 2009,
Sydney Morning Herald, ‘Media Are Tough On Crime And Rough On Justice’, SMH Opinion, 24 October 2008, <> at 2 April 2009.
John Macionis & Ken Plummer, Sociology: A Global Introduction (2005) 442,
Hans-Günther Heiland, Louise Shelley & Hisao Katō (eds), Crime and Control in Comparative Perspectives (1992) 252.
Heads of Commonwealth Operational Law Enforcement Agencies (HOCOLEA), Serious Crime – Attachment 2 (2007) Australian Attorney General’s Department, <> 2 April 2009.
Jack Greene, The Encyclopedia of Police Science (2006) 338,
US Department of Justice, Report to the Nation on Crime and Justice (2nd ed, 1988) 2.
Mark Findlay, Ralph Henham, Transforming International Criminal Justice: Retributive and Restorative Justice in the Trial Process (2005) 278282,
Declan Roche, ‘Retribution and Restorative Justice’ in Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) 75-80,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 66,
Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England: Volume 1 of the Rights of Persons (1765) 54-57,
Sir James Stephen, A Digest of the Criminal Law (Indictable Offences) (1950) 28.
Eugene McLaughlin, Restorative Justice: Critical Issues (2003) 205,
Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness, ‘The Idea of Restorative Justice’ in Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) 13.
Weitekamp, above n 6, 72,
McLaughlin, above n 20, 198,
George Mead, ‘The Psychology of Punitive Justice’ (1918) American Journal of Sociology 23, 577-602.
Johnstone, above n 2, 90,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 29,
Margarita Zernova, Restorative Justice: Ideals and Realities (2007) 37.
Elliott, above n 2, 262,
Walgrave, above n 2, 132-133,
Jane Dickson-Gilmore & Carol La Prairie, Will the Circle be Unbroken? Aboriginal Communities, Restorative Justice, and the Challenges of Conflict and Change (2005) 81-83.
Weitekamp, above n 6, 66,
Sullivan, above n 12, 499,
Strang, above n 4, 49,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 1.
Kay Pranis, ‘Restorative Values’ in Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) 62,
Zehr, above n 5, 19,
Elliott, above n 2, 234.
Pranis, above n 25, 62,
Zehr, above n 5, 19
Elliott, above n 2, 234.
Pranis, above n 25, 62,
Zehr, above n 5, 19,
Elliott, above n 2, 234.
Pranis, above n 25, 62,
Zehr, above n 5, 19,
Elliott, above n 2, 234.
Todd Clear & David Karp, What is Community Justice? Case Studies of Restorative Justice and Community Supervision (2002) 101-103,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 51,
Zehr, above n 5, 11,
Sullivan, above n 12, 239.
Sullivan, above n 12, 92,
Strang, above n 4, 22.
Braithwaite, above n 13, 46,
John Blackler, Ethical Issues in Policing (2005) 154,
McLaughlin, above n 20, 6.
Daniel Shapiro, ‘Pre-empting Disaster: Pre-Mediation Stategies to Deal with Strong Emotions in Margaret Herrman (ed), The Blackwell Handbook of Mediation: Bridging Theory, Research & Practice (2005) 216-218.
Pranis, above n 25, 62,
Zehr, above n 5, 19,
Elliott, above n 2, 234.
Johnstone, above n 2, 36-47 & 172-174,
Barbara Raye & Ann Warner Roberts, ‘Restorative Processes’ in Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) 211.
Rugge, above n 2, 266-277,
Tanya Rugge & Robert Cormier, ‘Restorative Justice in the Case of Serious Crimes: An Evaluation’ (Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on Restorative Justice ‘Best Practices in Restorative Justice’, Vancouver, British Columbia, 1-3 June 2003) 2,
Elliott, above n 2, 15,
Aertsen, above n 5, 174.
Elliott, above n 2, 15,
Perry, above n 12, 96,
Allison Morris & Gabrielle Maxwell (eds), Restorative Justice for Juveniles: Conferencing, Mediation and Circles (2001) 270,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 1,
Ruth Morris, Stories of Transformative Justice (2000) 248.
W Schurink, I Snyman & W Krugel, Victimization: Nature & Trends (1992) 475-477,
Heather Strang, Repair or Revenge: Victims and Restorative Justice (2002) 8-24,
Mike Maguire & John Pointing, Victims of Crime: A New Deal? (1988) 127-137.
Schurink, above n 38, 475,
Braithwaite, above n 13, 47,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Schurink, above n 38, 476,
Zehr, above n 5, 72,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Schurink, above n 38, 476,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Schurink, above n 38, 476,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Schurink, above n 38, 476,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Schurink, above n 38, 477,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Charles Figley, Trauma and its Wake: The Study and Treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (1985) 91,
Andrew Karmen, Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology (6th ed, 2007) 250 & 304.
Walgrave, above n 2, 132-133.
Walgrave, above n 2, 133.
Walgrave, above n 2, 133,
Elliott, above n 2, 15,
Perry, above n 12, 96,
Morris , above n 37, 270,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 1,
Morris, above n 37, 248.
Zehr, above n 6, 1-15,
Lode Walgrave, ‘Restorative Justice: An Alternative for Responding to Crime?’ in Shlomo Shoham, Ori Beck & Martin Kett, International Handbook of Penology and Criminal Justice (2007) 628-629.
Walgrave, above n 2, 133,
Elliott, above n 2, 15,
Perry, above n 12, 96,
Morris , above n 37, 270,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 1,
Ruth Morris, above n 37, 248.
Ruth Morris, above n 37, 248,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 72,
Karmen, above n 45, 26-27.
Schurink, above n 38, 475-477,
Strang, above n 38, 8-24,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Weitekamp, above n 6, 158,
Walgrave, above n 2, 169,
Sullivan, above n 12, 150.
Yvon Dandurand & Curt Taylor Griffiths, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Handbook on Restorative Justice Programmes (2006) 56-61,
Johnstone, above n 2, 153,
Maguire, above n 38, 164-165.
Dandurand, above n 54, 56-61,
Johnstone, above n 2, 153,
Maguire, above n 38, 164-165,
Sullivan, above n 12, 52-67.
Elliott, above n 2, 39-46,
Braithwaite, above n 13, 52-59.
Charles Barton, Restorative Justice: The Empowerment Model (2003) 48-62,
Margarita Zernova & Martin Wright, ‘Alternative Visions of Restorative Justice’ in Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) 99.
Dandurand, above n 54, 55-67,
Elliott, above n 2, 193-199,
Strang, above n 4, 49-55.
Dandurand, above n 54, 55-67,
Elliott, above n 2, 193-199,
Strang, above n 4, 49-55.
Braithwaite, above n 13, 45,
Strang, above n 4, 131,
Zernova, above n 22, 14,
Simon Green, ‘The Victims Movement and Restorative Justice’ in Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) 177-178.
Green, above n 60, 174,
Schurink, above n 38, 475-477,
Strang, above n 38, 8-24,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Ted Wachtel, ‘Restorative Conferencing for Serious Offences: An Exploration’ (Speech delivered at the International Conference on Serious Violence and Restorative Justice, Bar Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel, March 2006),
Rugge, above n 36,
Tanya Rugge, ‘Restorative Justice in Cases of Serious Crime’ (Research Summary Volume 10/4, Public Safety Canada, 2005) <> at 2 April 2009,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303.
Wachtel, above n 62,
Rugge, above n 36,
Rugge, above n 62,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303.
Wachtel, above n 62,
Rugge, above n 36,
Rugge, above n 62,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303.
Wachtel, above n 62,
Rugge, above n 36,
Rugge, above n 62,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303.
Wachtel, above n 62,
Rugge, above n 36,
Rugge, above n 62,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303,
Johnstone, above n 3, 598-610.
Strang, above n 4, 56-58,
Karmen, above n 45, 370-372,
Johnstone, above n 2, 29-31,
McLaughlin, above n 20, 182-194.
Strang, above n 4, 56-58,
Karmen, above n 45, 370-372,
Johnstone, above n 2, 29-31,
McLaughlin, above n 20, 182-194.
Johnstone, above n 2, 94,
David Spencer & Michael Brogan, Mediation Law and Practice (2006) 151-152,
Jo Goodey, Victims and Victimology: Research, Policy and Practice (2005) 93-94,
Curt & Anne Bartol, Current Perspectives in Forensic Psychology and Criminal Behaviour (2008) 78,
South Australia Police Sexual Assault Unit, Sex Crime Investigators Handbook (1992).
Strang, above n 4, 56-58,
Karmen, above n 45, 370-372,
Johnstone, above n 2, 29-31,
McLaughlin, above n 20, 182-194.
Heather Strang & John Braithwaite, Restorative Justice and Family Violence (2002) 56,
Braithwaite, above n 13, 137-138.
Wes Crenshaw, Treating Families and Children in the Child Protective System (2004) 21-24,
Braithwaite, above n 13, 58,
David Levinson, Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment (2002) 1390.
Strang, above n 4, 56-58.
The author’s experience as a sex crime investigator with SAPolice.
Strang, above n 4, 56-58.
Sullivan, above n 12, 217,
Wachtel, above n 62,
Rugge, above n 36,
Rugge, above n 62,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303,
Johnstone, above n 3, 598-610.
Robert Rotberg & Dennis Thompson, Truth v Justice: the Reality of Truth Commissions (2000) 79-80,
Green, above n 60, 174,
Schurink, above n 38, 475-477,
Strang, above n 38, 8-24,
Maguire, above n 38, 127-137.
Aertsen, above n 5, 241,
Sullivan, above n 12, 217,
Wachtel, above n 62,
Rugge, above n 36,
Rugge, above n 62,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303,
Johnstone, above n 3, 598-610.
Weitekamp, above n 6, 75,
Bartol, above n 69, 81.
Johnstone, above n 2, 94,
Goodey, above n 69, 214.
Shapiro, above n 33, 214-218,
Braithwaite, above n 13, 66.
Elliott, above n 2, 268,
Levinson, above n 72, 1392.
Sullivan, above n 12, 60,
Zehr, above n 5, 357.
Elliott, above n 2, 189,
Sullivan, above n 12, 55,
Aertsen, above n 5, 143.
Barton, above n 57, 117-118,
Zernova, above n 22, 122-123.
Dandurand, above n 54, 104-105,
Mark Umbreit & Robert Coates, ‘Restorative Justice: Mediated Dialogue’ in Margaret Herrman, The Blackwell Handbook of Mediation: Bridging Theory, Research & Practice (2005) 178,
Rugge, above n 2, 268.
Johnstone, above n 2, 95, 99-104,
Beck, above n 2, 231,
McLaughlin, above n 20, 10,
Dandurand, above n 54, 11.
Clear, above n 29, 92,
Albert Roberts, Critical Issues In Crime and Justice (2003) 401-402,
James Day & William Laufer, Crime, Value and Religion (1987) 91,
Crenshaw, above n 72, 95,
Perry, above n 12, 3.
Brian Williams, Working with Victims of Crime: Policies, Politics and Practice (1999) 48,
American Prosecutors Research Institute, Investigation and Prosecution of Child Abuse (2003) 176.,
United Nations Human Settlements Programme, Enhancing Urban Safety and Security: Global Report on Human Settlements (2007) 76,
Sue Richardson & Heather Bacon, Creative Responses to Child Sexual Abuse: Challenges and Dilemmas (2003) 169.
Johnstone, above n 2, 100-104.
Day, above n 89, 91,
Perry, above n 12, 3,
James Whitman, Harsh Justice (2005) 20-25.
John Braithwaite, ‘Restorative Justice and a Better Future’ (1996) 1(76) Dalhousie Review 9, 9-31,
Johnstone, above n 2, 99.
Braithwaite, above n 94, 9-31,
Johnstone, above n 2, 99-104.
Braithwaite, above n 94, 9-31,
Johnstone, above n 2, 99-104.
Griffiths, above n 2, 11-12,
Elliott, above n 2, 19,
Braithwaite, above n 12, 54.
Braithwaite, above n 93,
Gerry Johnstone, A Restorative Justice Reader: Texts, Sources, Contexts (2003) 462-464,
Umbreit, above n 87, 178,
Council of Europe, Rebuilding Community Connections – Mediations and Restorative Justice in Europe (2004) 61.
Johnstone, above n 3, 606-610,
Johnstone, above n 98, 462-464,
Zehr, above n 5, 205-209,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 63.
Johnstone, above n 3, 606-610,
Johnstone, above n 98, 462-464,
Zehr, above n 5, 205-209,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 63.
Johnstone, above n 3, 606-610,
Johnstone, above n 98, 462-464,
Zehr, above n 5, 205-209,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 63.
Johnstone, above n 3, 606-610,
Johnstone, above n 98, 462-464,
Zehr, above n 5, 205-209,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 63.
Sue Reid, Crime and Criminology (1982) 416,
Lode Walgrave, ‘Building a Global Alliance for Restorative Practices and Family Empowerment’ (Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on Conferencing, Circles and other Restorative Practices, Veldhoven, Netherlands, 28-30 August 2003) <> at 2 April 2009.
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Mara Schiff, ‘Satisfying the Needs and Interests of Stakeholders’ in Gerry Johnstone & Daniel Van Ness (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice (2007) 228-234, 240-241.
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Schiff, above n 104, 228-234, 240-241.
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Schiff, above n 104, 228-234, 240-241.
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Schiff, above n 104, 228-234, 240-241.
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Schiff, above n 104, 228-234, 240-241.
Zehr, above n 5, 155-172,
Schiff, above n 104, 235-238,
Michael Hadley, The Spiritual Roots of Restorative Justice (2001) 49-50.
Zehr, above n 5, 155-172,
Schiff, above n 104, 235-238,
Hadley, above n 109, 49-50.
Zehr, above n 5, 155-172,
Schiff, above n 104, 235-238,
Hadley, above n 109, 49-50,
Braithwaite, above n 13, 98-99.
Zehr, above n 5, 155-172,
Schiff, above n 104, 235-238,
Hadley, above n 109, 49-50,
Braithwaite, above n 13, 98-99.
Jean Piaget, The Moral Judgment of the Child (1999)197-230.
David Loy, The Great Awakening: A Buddhist Social Theory (2003) 82 & 130,
Marshall Rosenberg, Speak Peace in a World of Conflict: What You Say Next Will Change the World (2005) 43-44, 101 & 106.
Walgrave, above n 2, 84, 108-109 & 118.
Walgrave, above n 2, 84, 108-109 & 118.
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Schiff, above n 104, 228-234, 240-241,
Walgrave, above n 2, 84, 108-109 & 118.
Braithwaite, above n 13, 98-99,
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Schiff, above n 104, 228-234, 240-241,
Walgrave, above n 2, 84, 108-109 & 118.
Braithwaite, above n 13, 98-99,
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Schiff, above n 104, 228-234, 240-241.
Robert Regoli & John Hewitt, Exploring Criminal Justice: The Essentials (2009) 323-324,
Sullivan, above n 12, 134-146,
Burt Galaway & Joe Hudson (eds), Restorative Justice: International Perspectives (1996) 58-60.
Rotberg, above n 77, 79,
Mark Amstutz, International Ethics: Concepts, Theories, and Cases in Global Politics (2005) 67-68,
Roche, above n 19, 77-80,
Johnstone, above n 98, 69 & 173.
Johnstone, above n 98, 264,
Zehr, above n 5, 87.
Levinson, above n 72, 1392,
Galaway, above n 120, 250,
Elliott, above n 2, 189.
Findlay, above 19, 278,
McLaughlin, above n 20, 43,
Elliott, above n 2, xxi,
Sullivan, above n 12, 119.
Regoli, above n 120, 323-324,
Sullivan, above n 12, 134-146,
Galaway, above n 120, 58-60.
Strang, above n 4, 56-58,
Karmen, above n 45, 370-372,
Johnstone, above n 2, 29-31,
McLaughlin, above n 20, 182-194.
Johnstone, above n 3, 606-610,
Johnstone, above n 98, 462-464,
Zehr, above n 5, 205-209,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 63.
Zehr, above n 5, 107-118,
Schiff, above n 104, 240-241,
Aertsen, above n 5, 241,
Sullivan, above n 12, 217,
Wachtel, above n 62,
Rugge, above n 36,
Rugge, above n 62,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303,
Johnstone, above n 3, 598-610.
Ruth Morris, above n 37, 248,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 72,
Karmen, above n 45, 26-27.
Crenshaw, above n 72, 22.
Ruth Morris, above n 37, 248,
Weitekamp, above n 6, 72,
Karmen, above n 45, 26-27.
Crenshaw, above n 72, 22.
Zehr, above n 5, 155-172,
Schiff, above n 104, 235-238,
Hadley, above n 109, 49-50,
Braithwaite, above n 13, 98-99.
Levinson, above n 72, 1392,
Galaway, above n 120, 250,
Elliott, above n 2, 189.
Weitekamp, above n 6, 332,
Pranis, above n 25, 62,
Zehr, above n 5, 19,
Elliott, above n 2, 234.
Pranis, above n 25, 62,
Zehr, above n 5, 19,
Elliott, above n 2, 234,
Wachtel, above n 62,
Rugge, above n 36,
Rugge, above n 62,
Elliott, above n 2, 245-303.
Joseph Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt: A Friend’s Memoir (1964) 304.