The Vietcong avoided large-scale pitched battles they stood little chance of winning and instead utilised guerrilla tactics against the Americans. They infiltrated the countryside, merging with the villagers by gaining their trust or by force. From this position they began a campaign of guerrilla warfare. They infiltrated American camps and ambushed isolated units, inflicting losses before merging back into the jungle. Snipers and explosives were used to support ambushes. Americans could not tell who their enemies were, as the Vietcong wore the same clothes as the peasants who supported them.
The Vietcong also used booby-traps to delay and disrupt the mobility of US Forces, as well as to cause casualties and damage equipment. Punji traps - sharpened stakes of bamboo – were the most popular form of trap, sometimes covered with excrement to cause blood poisoning. Other non-explosive traps used were bamboo whips, bow traps, pits and spiked balls. The most feared traps however, were explosive and typically constructed from American materials including unexploded bombs and seized ammunition caches. Grenades were the typical booby-trap; triggered by tripwires or remote detonation, they caused often-fatal injuries. Many trails and roads were mined by the Vietnamese, meaning American advances typically moved at a snails pace. The mines were also used to aid ambushes, often preventing enemy retreats. Overall, 11% of American casualties were caused by booby traps.
The guerrilla tactics used by the Vietnamese caused incessant paranoia among the American troops, as they never knew where the enemy was. The soldiers were always wary of ambushes and booby-traps. American morale was badly affected, particularly as often they could not distinguish between a civilian and a Vietcong. As a result of this paranoia and fear, many soldiers were charged with ‘combat refusals’ and ‘fraggings’ (murder of superior officer) occurred.
The Vietnamese forces were kept well fed and equipped thanks to the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a network consisting of thousands of roads and trails to provide logistical support. The Trail passed through the neutral countries of Cambodia and Laos, preventing the Americans from effectively attacking it. A dense jungle canopy hid the Trail, making enemy bombing difficult.
The Vietcong used a vast system of hidden tunnels that covered the majority of the country. These provided an area of safety for soldiers away from enemy spy planes and bombing. The tunnels facilitated guerrilla tactics as men could launch attacks from them, before disappearing back into them. All tunnels were heavily camouflaged often almost invisible from above ground. Foliage and trees concealed entrances and exits, while even within the tunnels certain corridors are hidden. Tunnels were never alike, though the more extensive systems contained ammunition caches, dormitories, conference rooms, kitchens and even hospitals.
The United States of America used very different tactics to the Vietnamese. The wars they had fought in the past were large-scale conflicts with immense pitched battles. American military tactics typically revolved around large infantry advances supported by armoured detachments. Vietnam was a new experience for them.
America began the war in Vietnam with ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’, a bombing campaign. It was supposed to last eight weeks but it continued for three years. The aim of this bombing campaign was to cripple the North Vietnamese infrastructure and destroy their military installations. It was believed that if heavy damage were inflicted upon the Vietnamese, they would surrender. ‘Rolling Thunder’ was not a huge success as Vietnam was mainly a rural nation and there were little targets of opportunity. Much of Vietnam was covered in dense jungle and so, many villages were unintentionally bombed. This led to many civilians siding with the communists and the Vietcong turned their attention to assaults on American airbases.
To solve the problem of Vietcong hiding in the forests, the American airforce began ‘Operation Ranch Hand’. This was a series of chemical warfare attacks in which defoliants were used to strip leaves away from the forests, exposing the Vietcong. In 1969 alone, 1,034,300 hectares of jungle were destroyed. Agent Orange was the main defoliant used and it had a devastating side effect: chromosomal damage to civilians. As well as standard bombs, the Americans also used napalm. As well as a defoliant, this was a very effective anti-personnel weapon as it clung to the skin of victims and could cause them fifth-degree burns. Agent Blue was a herbicide sprayed on crops that America suspected would fall into Vietcong hands. It is believed nineteen million gallons of Agent Blue was sprayed. ‘Operation Ranch Hand’ was a huge failure as it caused damage to civilian areas. Villages were burned with napalm and people’s crops were destroyed, leading to starvation.
To protect the American airbases in Vietnam, base camps were set up. These were used to launch patrols from and were often heavily fortified. The base camps contained many artillery pieces. This was an American battle tactic: they would often engage the Vietnamese, before breaking off and calling in artillery and air support. The artillery was directed from the base camps. Locals were hired to help with the construction of these camps and this led to Vietcong infiltration. Some camps were even built over Vietnamese tunnels and were very vulnerable.
The American government had been concerned about the influence of the Vietcong over the peasants. To keep them from being turned against them, the ‘Strategic Hamlet’ programme was introduced in 1962. Villagers were relocated to villages under the control of the South Vietnamese in an attempt to keep them away from Vietcong influence and to protect them. However, the Vietnamese saw this in a very different way: they believed the Americans were trying to take them over and being forced to relocate angered many civilians. Within two years of the programme’s introduction, Vietcong membership had had a three hundred percent increase.
Another attempt to win over the Vietnamese and make them sympathetic to the American cause was pacification. This was where America poured money into the Vietnamese economy, providing schools, hospitals, transport and other aid. However, this was seen as imperialism and was soon stopped.
To combat the Vietcong infiltration of the villages, the American army began ‘Search and Destroy’ (S&D) operations. Patrols would fly to villages in helicopters, giving the enemy little time to react. They would then search the villages for weapons or any hiding guerrillas. If any were found then the Americans would burn down the village and take prisoners. Search and destroy operations were not always successful as guerrillas began setting ambushes for the Americans. As the enemy blended in with the civilians, the Americans could rarely distinguish between them. This caused deep frustration for the Americans who were losing their friends to invisible enemies. This resulted in them occasionally taking their anger out on villages. An example of this is the ‘My Lai’ incident, where over three hundred unarmed civilians were killed.
Overall, I feel the successes of the Vietnamese tactics far outweigh the successes of the American tactics. However, despite the Vietcong taking full advantage of the terrain America caused much higher losses than they did. America was forced to withdraw as the war had very little support at home and there were many protests. As their tactics alienated the Vietnamese people, many Americans believed the war was wrong. The public had begun to hear of the atrocities committed by their soldiers. The drug abuse and exceptionally poor morale was also discovered, making public opinion on the war reach an all time low. The Tet Offensive of 1967 was the turning point, as it convinced the American government that the Vietcong had inexhaustible amounts of men willing to give their lives to fight off the invaders. This caused the Americans to withdraw without victory.
