Another study by Thomas, Curtis and Bolton (1978) investigated the same hypothesis. They interviewed 72 Nepalese women and asked them to list all the colours they could think of. They found that woman’s colour vocabularies were signicantly larger and suggested that, as traditionally, Nepalese women wear more colourful clothing, it could have been a contributory factor.
The following study was a replication of this study however used British participants to see if the same results were gained.
Hypothesis
Experimental hypothesis:
Females will be able to list significantly more colour words in a 2-minute time period than males will
Null hypothesis:
Females will not be able to list significantly more colour words in a 2-minute time period than males will
Method
Design
The experiment used an independent groups design as the conditions were male and female and so it was impossible to use a repeated measures design.
Participants
The experiment comprised 16 participants aged 16-19 from a sixth form college in Southern England. Within the sample were 8 males and 8 females. The sampling method used was opportunity as it’s quick and easy and therefore ideal for this experiment.
Procedure
The experiment was carried out in the quad of the college. The participants were handed an instruction slip explaining the experiment and covering all the ethical guidelines such as asking for consent and offering withdrawal. The instruction slip was then given in and blank sheets of paper were handed out. Participants were then timed for 2 minutes. In this time they were instructed to write down as many colour words as they knew. After this time was up, the lists were handed back in and participants were debriefed and asked whether they had any questions.
Controls
The experiment was carried out in the same location with the two conditions at the same time to control for environmental factors, which may have affected the validity of the results. The procedure was standardised as all participants were given the same instruction slip, the same time limit, and had the same experimenter present throughout. Art students were controlled for, by using the same number in each condition (3), as it could be predicted that these participants may have larger colour vocabularies. Colour blindness was eliminated from the experiment to prevent its effects on the results.
Materials
The materials used were:
- 16 blank pieces of paper
- 16 instruction slips (see Appendix 2)
- Pens
- Stopwatch
Measurement and Analysis
The experiment generated ordinal data as the results could be placed in rank order from the most number of colour words recalled to the least. Since the design was independent groups, the Mann-Whitney U-test was used for the statistical test.
Ethics
The instruction slip asked for consent from the participants, offered a withdrawal option both before or during the experiment and explained that the participant’s could remove their data after the experiment. It also made clear that confidentiality would be kept; names were not asked for and results were not disclosed.
Protection of participants was maintained as participants were informed that their results were normal and throughout the experiment they were not asked to do anything that could cause potential mental or physical harm.
Finally, the participants were debriefed and asked if they had any questions.
Results
A table to summarise the numbers of colour words listed in each condition:
A visual display of the mean results:
Results of the statistical analysis using the Mann-Whitney U-Test:
The observed value of U (13) is equal to the critical value at p<0.025, therefore females recalled significantly more colour words than males to accept the experimental hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. The difference between the two conditions is significant at the 1-in-40 level.
Workings for the Mann-Whitney U-Test can be found in Appendix 1.
Discussion
To conclude, the results from the experiment showed that significantly more colour words were generated by females than by males. This supported the experimental hypothesis at p<0.025. These results supported background research by Thomas, Curtis and Bolton (1978) and Robin Lacoff (1975) and therefore give evidence that women have larger colour vocabularies than men.
The results cannot be attributed to people of other age groups, or cultures. The study was only performed on white students aged 16-19 at a sixth form college in Hampshire, it is consequently ethnocentric. These results may be different in other areas with different participants.
The results are reliable as the procedure was standardised and the experiment was performed in the same location within the college. Also, each participant received the same instructions and materials.
However does this study measure colour vocabulary? Instead it could be measuring the ability to recall colour words from memory or active colour vocabulary. Validity therefore may be weak. Is there a more accurate way of measuring colour vocabulary? The study was also conducted in the quad of the college, a relatively colourful area, the environment may have therefore provided the participants with inspiration for colour words, in this case, the study would have measured the participants response to the environment, not colour vocabulary. If the study had been conducted in a more achromatic environment, such as a classroom, maybe the affect would be less and the validity higher.
As the experiment was performed in the quad of the college, controls could have been tighter. Participants could have suffered from external distractions such as noise; some participants may cope with these distractions better or worse than others and so it may have had an effect on the results. The participants could have also been seated further apart so that cheating would have been completely eliminated. The instruction slip’s wording could have been different as participants were confused by the expression “colour words” and therefore wrote such words as “light” which had to be discounted. The time limit could have also been shortened as many ran out of words before 1.5 minutes and therefore felt slightly more pressured to write until the end.
Future research could look at gender differences in colour preference or attitudes towards colour and see whether they reflect colour vocabulary. There may be a difference in colour vocabulary between those who prefer achromatic colours and those who prefer chromatic colours. Is there a relationship between colour preference or attitude and the size of a persons colour vocabulary?
Word count: 1358
Appendix 1
Statistical Analysis using the Mann-Whitney U-Test
Table ranking individual results:
Rank F= Rank for the females
Rank M= Rank for the males
U1=8x8 + 8(8+1) -87
2
U1=64 + 36 -87
U1=100 -87
U1=13
U2=8x8 + 8(8+1) -49
2
U2=64 + 36 -49
U2=100 -49
U2=51
U1 is lower than U2 and so therefore becomes the observed value of U.
The critical value when n1 and n2 (participants in each condition) equals 8 is 15.
The observed value of U is below to the critical value of U at the 1-in-40 value and so the difference between conditions is therefore significant.
Appendix 2
The instruction slip given to the participants at the beginning of the experiment:
This experiment is designed to see whether males or females are better at recalling colour words. You will be given a blank piece of paper and a pen, you will then be given 2 minutes to write down as many colour words as you can recall. After the time has ended the experimenter will then take back in your list of recalled colour words.
You have the opportunity to withdraw, before, during and after the experiment by the way of having your data/results removed. Results from the experiment will remain fully confidential and will only be used for this experiment. If you have a query do not hesitate the experimenter at any time during the experiment. By continuing with the experiment you are giving your consent to participate. Do you have any questions?
References
ELAINE RICH (1977), Sex related differences in colour vocabulary, ‘Language and Speech’, Vol. 20, Part 4. Pages 404 - 409
Studies found using google search engine:
http://www.colormatters.com/khouw.html
LAKOFF, R. (1975). Language and Woman's Place. London: Harper & Row
References for statistical tests:
COOLICAN, H. (1996) Introduction to Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology, 2nd Edition. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
MALIM, T. AND BIRCH, A. (1997) Research Methods and Statistics. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd.
