Organizational structures are not fixed as portrayed in Figure 1, which shows vertical differentiation. Structures may also show horizontal, personal and spatial differentiation. Horizontal differentiation describes the grouping of jobs at the same level in the hierarchy according to their function, customer or product. This leads to flat organizations having many divisions at the same level. Personal differentiation describes division of labour according to the worker’s expertise, for example specialists in a hospital heading different departments. Spatial differentiation describes groupings according to their geographical location.
The different types of structures impact directly on the ability of workers to exercise power and influence over others in the workplace. In a horizontally differentiated organization where most workers are at the same level, the ability for lateral influence is increased, and in most instances these worker answer only to the chief executive office (CEO). The opportunity for upward influence on him is therefore enhanced. However, power and influence will further depend on their personalities and their relationships with him.
In tall vertical structures, there are senior and junior managers to whom workers must report. Here the senior managers have greater influence and ‘position’ power in the organization than the junior managers based on their hierarchical position. However, junior managers having the ear of the CEO might as a result have a greater influence on strategic formulation than their senior counterparts. A manager holding a central position in this organization can also accrue power because the links he makes are important to those of other subunits. Workers low in the hierarchy because of their position will generally wield much less influence and power than those higher in the hierarchy. However, acting collectively as a group, they may be transformed to a very powerful body, with substantial influence and power. This is sometimes the case during industrial action where the combined actions of the workers could cripple an organization.
In organizations, goals are accomplished by the various groups through the coordinating mechanisms of mutual adjustment, direct supervision, standardization of work processes, standardization of outputs and standardization of skills. Mutual adjustment (informal but direct communication between individuals) is an example of lateral influence by peers, while direct supervision (direct supervision by manager of one or more employees) demonstrates downward influence.
Power and influence is also related to the control of and access to resources. The greater the amount of resources a group or person controls, the more power the group or person has. For example, the bursar of a college is thought to have a great deal of power as he holds the keys to the purse and in some instances is only answerably to the board. Also, in a production-oriented company, workers in this department would be able to influence decision-making and as such have more power than workers in the marketing department.
Attention must be paid to the informal organization, which reflects the way the work is actually done. Here, the formal chain of command might be circumvented and nonofficial relationships become legitimized changing the wings of power and influence within the organization. For example, lower level employees may rely on former supervisors (not their current supervisors) for information increasing these supervisors’ power and influence. Also, some workers may experience problems with their managers and seek assistance from others, again influencing their power. The practice of line managers recruiting and hiring employees substituting for human resources recruiters is another example of reducing the powers of higher-ranking officials in an organization. As indicated above, workers having close relationships with the boss could also lead to their increased power and influence within the organization.
The organizational structure both formal and informal is linked to the culture of an organization - the way things are done. A general definition of culture describes the set of assumptions, beliefs and values that organizational members share and use to guide their functioning (Gordon, pg 374). It symbolizes meanings and values that guide employees’ behaviour and acts as a tool for achieving organizational goals. Strong cultures demonstrate internal consistency and thus have a major impact on an organization’s members. Here power and influence is used wisely and positively by all ensuring congeniality and success, leading to an environment where workers are empowered, one in which distributed leadership is practiced. Conflict encourages organizational innovation, creativity and adaptation, and may also lead to higher worker enthusiasm. Here, power and influence is not negative, inspiring power struggles and competition, but allow managers to increase their power by sharing it with others.
A weak toxic culture could lead to power struggles, divisiveness and cliques resulting in organizational goals not being met and failure (dysfunctional outcomes). Many times this is as a result of poor management of the informal organizational structure, and the development of ‘power groups’ within the organization who reap all the rewards. It could also be related to inter-department struggle, for example production versus marketing. Using the example from above, workers in the production department in a production driven company will wield greater influence than workers in the marketing department. The latter could therefore feel marginalized and if not properly handled could lead to dysfunctional outcomes.
A variety of tactics can be used to exert influence and power in organizations, and this depends on their culture. According to Gordon, (pg 287) U.S. managers find the following tactics more effective in influencing others – rational persuasion and exchange tactics. Exchange tactics involves a person making an explicit or implicit promise that rewards of tangible benefits will be given if a request or proposal is supported. Rational persuasion involves logical arguments and factual evidence in persuasion that a proposal or request is viable and likely to result in the attainment of task objectives. Chinese managers however, believe that rated coalition tactics, upward appeals and gifts are more effective. Coalition tactics seeks the aid of others in persuasion, while upward appeals relates to the request being approved by higher management.
Other tactics include pressure tactics (demands, threats or intimidation used), ingratiating tactics (flattering of another before asking), inspirational appeals (emotional request appealing to their values and increasing their confidence) and consultation tactics (seeking another’s participation in making a decision).
The author suggests, that the culture of the region impacts on an organization’s culture and thus plays a part on the way power and influence is manifested.
Organizational structure and culture are interrelated and impact directly on power and influence in the workplace. In relation to organizational structure, people often obtain power form the position or job they hold in an organization, as such the higher the position the greater the position power. This relates to increased authority, centrality and control of rewards and punishments.
Also, the amount of power and influence demonstrated by workers or groups is many times in weak culture organizations directly related to the type of relationship they hold with the boss.
Bibliography
Gordon, Judith (2002), Organizational Behaviour 7th ed. Prentice Hall
Hannagan, Tim (2002), Management Concepts and Practices 3rd ed. Prentice Hall
Sweeney, Paul D. McFarlin, Dean B. Organizational Behavior: Solutions for Management Chapter 8 http://highered.mcgrawhill.com /sites/oo73659088/ student_view0/chapter8_outline.html
Ratzburg, Wilf H OBNotes http:// www.geocities com/Athens/Forum/1650/ htmlpower.html
