Outline and evaluate research theories in to personality. Psychology covers a vast field, and one interesting aspect of it is personality. Personality by itself involves various issues. Some of which basic aspects are Psychoanalytic, Biological, Behaviourist, Cognitive and Humanistic. derived principles of learning to the treatment of psychological disorders. The concept derives primarily from work of Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Behaviour-therapy techniques differ from psychiatric methods, particularly psychoanalysis, in that they are predominately symptom (behaviour) oriented and show little or no concern for unconscious processes, achieving new insight, or effecting fundamental personality change. The U.S. psychologist B.F. Skinner, who worked with mental patients in a Massachusetts state hospital, popularized behavior therapy. From his work in animal learning, Skinner found that the establishment and extinction of responses can be determined by the way reinforcers, or rewards, are given. The pattern of reward giving, both in time and frequency, is known as a schedule of reinforcement. The gradual change in behaviour in approximation of the desired result is known as shaping. More recent developments in behaviour therapy emphasize the adaptive nature of cognitive processes. Behaviour-therapy techniques have been applied with some success to such disturbances as enuresis (bed-wetting), tics, phobias, stuttering, obsessive-compulsive behaviour, drug addiction, neurotic behaviours of normal persons, and some
psychotic conditions. It has also been used in training the mentally retarded. Collective Behaviour Much of collective behaviour is dramatic, unpredictable and frightening, so the early theories and many contemporary popular views are more evaluative than analytic. The French social psychologist Gustave Le Bon identified the crowd and revolutionary movements with the excesses of the French Revolution; the U.S. psychologist Boris Sidis was impressed with the resemblance of crowd behaviour to mental disorder. Many of these early theories depicted collective behaviour returned to an earlier stage of development. Freud retained this emphasis in viewing crowd behaviour and many other forms ...
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psychotic conditions. It has also been used in training the mentally retarded. Collective Behaviour Much of collective behaviour is dramatic, unpredictable and frightening, so the early theories and many contemporary popular views are more evaluative than analytic. The French social psychologist Gustave Le Bon identified the crowd and revolutionary movements with the excesses of the French Revolution; the U.S. psychologist Boris Sidis was impressed with the resemblance of crowd behaviour to mental disorder. Many of these early theories depicted collective behaviour returned to an earlier stage of development. Freud retained this emphasis in viewing crowd behaviour and many other forms of collective behaviour as regressions to an earlier stage of childhood development; he explained, for example, the slavish identification that followers have for leaders on the basis of such regression. More sophisticated recent efforts to treat collective behaviour as a pathological manifestation employ social disorganization as an explanatory approach. From this point of view collective behaviour erupts as an unpleasant symptom of frustration and malaise stemming from cultural conflict, organizational failure, and other social malfunctions. The distinctive feature of this approach is a reluctance to take seriously the manifest contest of collective behaviour. Neither the search for enjoyment in recreational fad, the search for spiritual meaning on a religious sect, nor the demand for equal opportunity in an interest-group movement is accepted to face value. An opposite evaluation of many forms of collective behaviour has become part of the analytic perspective in revolutionary approaches to society. From the revolutionist’s point of view a much collective behaviour is a release of creative impulses from the repressive effects of establish social orders. Revolutionary theorists such as Frantz Fanon depict traditional social arrangements as destructive of human spontaneity, and various forms of crowd and revolutionary movements as man’s creative self-assertion bursting its social shackles. Crime and Punishment Psychologists have approached the task of explaining delinquent behaviour by examining in particular the processes by which behaviour and restraints on behaviour are learned. Criminality is seen to result from the failure of the superego, as a consequence either of its incompletes development or of unusually strong instinctual drives. The empirical basis for such a theory is necessarily thin. Behaviour theory views all behaviour criminal and otherwise as learned and therefore can be manipulated by the use of reinforcement and punishment. Social learning theory examines the manner in which behaviour is learned from contacts within the family and other intimate groups, from social contacts outside the family, particularly from peer groups, and from exposure to models of behaviour in the media, particularly television. Mental illness is the cause of a relatively small proportion of crime, but its importance as a causative factor may be exaggerated by the seriousness of some of the crimes committed by persons with mental disorders. Social Behaviour and Peer Acceptance the peer relations literature is replete with studies showing that children who demonstrate certain kinds of social behaviours while refraining from other types of behaviours tend to be liked by their peers. For example, children who play cooperatively and show leadership abilities usually enjoy high peer acceptance (Hatzichristou & Hopf, 1996; Lass, Price, & Hart, 1988). On the other hand, children who display high levels of aggressive behaviour or who interact with their peers in argumentative, disruptive, and socially inappropriate ways are often rejected by their peers (Coie & Dodge, 1988; Dodge, 1983; Dodge, Coie, Pettit, & Price 1990). Shy and withdrawn behaviour, such as not playing interactively with peers, watching peers play rather than joining in, and wandering around a classroom or playground, also tends to be associated with low peer acceptance (Lemerise, 1997). A study was designed to isolate the types of social behaviours that predict kindergarten children’s peer acceptance when considering several types of social behaviour simultaneously. The outcome of that question is important to help parents, teachers, and others who work with young children understand what social skills to specifically foster and promote in order to enhance children’s perceptions of their peer acceptance. Previous research has discovered developmental differences in the associations between social behaviours and peer acceptance. Aggression, for example, is linked with problematic peer relations from early childhood through adolescence, while socially withdrawn behaviour begins to be associated with low peer acceptance in middle and late childhood (Rubin, Bookwork, & Parker, 1998) Adult perceptions of children’s confidence in their own peer acceptance also may influence their social behaviours. Adults who believe children are not confident about their peer acceptance might provide more opportunities to help these children develop play and friendship skills that could, in turn, lead to more confidence in their peer acceptance. For example, a teacher who believes a child lacks confidence in his or her peer acceptance might pair the child with another child who is confident about her peer acceptance, in order to provide a model of behaviour. In summary, this study investigated the associations between aggression, shyness/ withdrawal, pro-social behaviour, friendship skill, and social behaviour problems and peer acceptance in preschool students. Children’s own feelings of peer acceptance and teacher and parent perceptions of children’s confidence in their peer acceptance were included in the regression analysis to isolate the social behaviours that predict preschool peer acceptance across informants. The present study also investigated differences in social behaviours and peer acceptance among children of different genders and varied ethnic backgrounds in a diverse school and community. After doing this paper I came to the conclusion that behaviour shapes personality. The research involving children to learn social acceptance, showed us clearly that how one behaves makes him what he is and if they behave in a certain way for a long time, not only society with believe you are what you are behaving as but he himself will start believing he is what he is behaving as.
