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By 1878 Bismarck accepted that the Kulturkampf had failed. By opening up a rift between the Reich and its Catholic subjects, it had increased disunity, not removed it. Falk was dismissed and some of the anti-Catholic laws repealed.
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However, the Catholic Church did not win a complete victory. Many of the May Laws remained in force: for example, civil marriage remained compulsory. Jesuits were forbidden to enter Germany and the State continued to oversee all permanent Church appointments.
Economic protectionism
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In the early 1870s Bismarck left economic matters in the hands of Delbrück, a capable administer who continued the free trade policies pf the Zollverein. Support for free trade was an essential principle of most National Liberals. In 1879, however, Bismarck ditched both free trade and the National Liberals. Aligning himself with the Conservative and Centre parties, he supported the introduction of tariffs, or customs duties, to protect German industry and farming.
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By 1879 an all-party association for tariff reform, made up mostly of Conservatives and Centre Party members, had a majority in the Reichstag. Bismarck now introduced a general tariff bill. He addressed the Reichstag in May 1879.
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In July 1879 a tariff bill passed through the Reichstag and duties were imposed on imports. The political results were far-reaching. Bismarck had now firmly committed himself to the Conservative camp.
Financial and economic advantages of protectionism
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The adoption of protective tariffs by France, Russia and Austria in the late 1870s seemed to make it all the more desirable to follow suit.
Bismarck and Socialism
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The Social Democrat Party won 2 seats in 1871: in 1877 it had 12 seats and won nearly 500,000 votes.
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In 1876 Bismarck tried to pass a bill preventing the publication of socialist propaganda. It was defeated. Other measures to prosecute the SDP also failed to get through the Reichstag. In May 1878 an anarchist tried to assassinate Kaiser Wilhelm I. But his efforts to push through a bill against socialism were defeated by the National Liberal and Centre Party members concerned about infringing civil liberties.
Bismarck and Socialism
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An anti-socialist bill, supported by Conservatives and most National Liberals, was passed in October 1878. Socialist organisations, including trade unions, were banned, their meetings were broken up and their publications outlawed.
State Socialism
- 1883: sickness insurance for up to 13 weeks’ sick pay was introduced for 3 million workers and their families. The cost was to be borne jointly by employers and workers.
- 1884: accident insurance was introduced for injured workers. This was financed wholly by the employers.
- 1889: old age pensions were made available to people reaching the age of 70. This was paid for by workers, employers and the State.
Bismarck’s aims
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In Bismarck’s view, Germany was a ‘satiated power’ after 1872 without further territorial ambitions.
- Although Bismarck faced problems, he also had a strong hand. He enjoyed far more control in handling the foreign affairs than in domestic matters.
The problem of the Balkans
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The Slav peoples were becoming fiercely nationalistic. Russia sought to assist the Slavs to obtain independence from Turkey. As leader of the Orthodox Church, the Tsar felt a moral obligation to aid Christian Slavs if their Muslim rulers treated them too oppressively.
The Three Emperor’s League
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Following a meeting in 1872, the Emperor’s of Germany, Russia and Austria reached an agreement known as the Three Emperor’s League or Dreikaiserbund.
The 1875 War Scare
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In 1875 he reacted to French recovery and rearmament by provoking a diplomatic crisis. He prohibited the export of horses to France and in April in Berlin Post carried an article ‘Is War in Sight?’
The Balkan Crisis 1875-78
In Britain, Disraeli’s government was temporarily prevented from pursuing the traditional British policy of supporting Turkey against Russia. In Russia the suffering of the Bulgarians and the defeat of Serbian and Montenegrin forces enflamed Pan-Slavist sentiment to such an extent that the Tsarist government found itself under mounting pressure to intervene on the side of the Balkan rebels.
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Tsar Alexander II in 1876 declared that Russia would fight alone if needs be to protect the Balkan Christians. The Tsar asked for an assurance of German neutrality in the event of an Austro-Russian war, if Austria sided with Turkey.
The Balkan Crisis 1875-78
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In January 1877 In April Russia declared war on Turkey. Courageous Turkish defence of the fortress of Plevna deprived Russia of a quick victory.Plevna finally fell in December 1877 ad the Russians were able to resume their advance. In March they imposed the severe San Stefano Treaty on the Turks. This treaty significantly improved Russia's position in the Balkans.
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The San Stefano Treaty confirmed Andrassy’s worst fears that he had been duped.
- Bismarck, somewhat reluctantly, offered his services as the ‘honest broker’..
Treaty of San Stefano:
European Turkey was to be reduced to small unconnected territories by the creation of a Big Bulgaria under Russian occupation for 2 years.
Turkey ceded Kars and Batum on the eastern shore of the Black sea to Russia
Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were to be fully independent of Turkey
There was no mention of Austria taking Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Congress of Berlin: June-July 1878
- The fact that the Congress – the most important meeting of the powers since 1856 – Russia had agreed to reduce the size of Bulgaria
Britain had agreed to guarantee Turkey’s security in exchange for Cyprus
The Sultan has promised to introduce reforms
Big Bulgaria is divided into three.
Macedonia was returned to Turkish rule
Russia recovered south Bessarabia from Romania
Russia retains Batum
Austria occupies Bosnia Herzegovina
Britain keeps Cyprus
The Congress of Berlin
- Disraeli’s firm stand had checked Russia and Cyprus was a useful acquisition.
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The Pan-Slavist press was bitterly critical and Alexander II described the Congress as ‘a coalition of the European powers against Russia under the leadership of Prince Bismarck’. Russo-German relations quickly deteriorated. The introduction of German protective tariffs in 1879 did not help matters, given Russia's dependence on wheat exports to Germany. By 1878-9 the Dreikaiserbund was well and truly dead. Bismarck was now in a potentially dangerous position. There was suddenly the real possibility of a Franco-Russian alliance.
The Dual Alliance
- In October 18979 Bismarck and Andrassy agreed to the Dual Alliance. If Germany or Austria was at war with a third power, the other partner would remain neutral unless Russia intervened. lasting until 1918.
Why did Bismarck agree to the Dual Alliance?
- Bismarck felt he could control Austria more than he could Russia.
- An alliance with a fellow German power was likely to be more popular in Germany than an alliance with Russia. It helped to win Centre Party support.
The Three Emperors’ Alliance
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Russia, alarmed at her isolation and not anxious to ally with republican France, soon turned back to Germany. However, more than 18 months elapsed before a new Dreikaiserbind was signed. This was partly due to problems arising from the death of Alexander II and the accession of Tsar Alexander III.
- Austria was also opposed to the entire project. However, Andrassy finally yielded to Bismarck’s pressure and in June 1881 the Three Emperors’ Alliance was signed. It aimed at resolving Austro-Russian disputes in the Balkans and at reassuring Russia that she did not need to seek accommodation with France.
- If Russia, Germany or Austria were at war with another power, the others would remain neutral.
- The 3 powers agreed to keep the entrance to the Black Sea closed to foreign warships.
- The three would not permit territorial changes in the Balkans without prior, mutual agreement
- Austria acknowledged Russia’s ambitions to recreate a Big Bulgaria: Russia accepted Austria's right to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina.
- Bismarck was also pleased. His confident assertion to Emperor Wilhelm that Russia would return to the fold had come to pass and the conservative alliance was restored.
The Triple Alliance
- Bismarck hoping to divert French attention away from Alsace-Lorraine encouraged France to embark on colonial expansion in Africa and Asia. This had the added advantage of alienating France from Britain.
- In 1881, with Bismarck’s support, France seized Tunis. This angered Italy who had designs on the same territory. Bridging Italy closer to the Dual Alliance would secure Austria’s vulnerable southern flank and deprive France of a potential ally.
- Accordingly, in 1882 the Triple Alliance was signed:
- In the event of war between Austria and Russia, Italy would remain neutral.
- If France attacked Germany, Italy would provide support.
- If Italy were attacked by France, both Germany and Austria agreed to back her.
1884 – The zenith of Bismarck’s ‘system’
- In 1884 an Austrian agreement with Serbia turned Serbia virtually in to an Austrian satellite. An agreement with Romania followed in 1883. Austria and Germany undertook to defend Romania while Romania agreed to fight if Russia attacked Austria.
- The Three Emperors’ Alliance was renewed in 1884.
Bismarck and Colonisation
- The German Colonial Union, founded in 1882 with support from major industrialists, did much to interest public opinion in overseas expansion. Within German there was a concern about the consequences of protectionist policies.
- Colonialism was a convenient stick with which to beat the Radicals and Socialists and to rally support.
Bismarck and Colonisation
- In 1884 Bismarck deliberately picked quarrels with Britain over colonial claims on South West Africa and sided with France in opposition to British plans in Egypt.
- Facing a Russia threat in central Asia, Britain had no wish to antagonise Germany. Thus between 1884-5 Germany acquired South West Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, German East Africa and some Pacific islands – one million square miles of land in total.
- Thus he made substantial concessions to Britain when East Africa was partitioned in 1889.
Franco-German relations 1884-7
- The Franco-German entente reached its high water mark at the Berlin Conference of 1884-5, called to regulate the affairs of Central Africa.
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However, rapprochement with France was short-lived. In 1886 General Boulanger became French War Minister and talked of a war to recover Alsace-Lorraine. Relations deteriorated quickly and Bismarck called for a 10% increase in the German army.
The Bulgarian crisis
- A crisis in Bulgaria in 1885-6 shattered the Three Emperors’ Alliance. Austria and Russia again squared up against each other in the Balkans. Bismarck refused to take sides in the dispute. abandon Austria.
- As Austro-Russian relations worsened, Bismarck’s fears of France revived. Nationalistic feelings in France were whipped up by General Boulanger. To make matters worse, Pan-Slav advisers, sympathetic to France and hostile to Germany, seemed to be exerting great influence in Russia.
- In February 1887 the Triple Alliance was renewed on terms more favourable to Italy than those she obtained tin 1882.
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In March 1887, with Bismarck’s full backing, Britain, Austria and Italy signed the First Mediterranean Agreement, committing themselves to the maintenance of the status quo in the eastern Mediterranean – an action that was clearly anti-Russian.
The Reinsurance Treaty
- France, suddenly cautious, avoided Russian feelers and conservative diplomats again won the upper hand in St Petersburg. Tsar Alexander III accepted their argument that an agreeement with Germany was better than nothing and in June 1887 the reinsurance Treaty was signed.
- If either Germany or Russia were at war with a third power, the other would remain benevolently neutral.
- The provision would not apply to a war against Austria or France resulting from an attack on one of these two powers by either Russia or Germany.
- The Treaty, which did not contravene the Dual Alliance, can be seen as a masterpiece of diplomatic juggling on Bismarck’s part. It was simply another temporary expedient to remove his fears of a Franco-Russian alliance.
The Reinsurance Treaty
- In November 1887 he denied Russia access to the Berlin money market for loans to finance her industrialisation in order ‘to remove the possibility that the Russians wage war against us at our cost’. In consequence, Russia simply turned to Paris where French financiers were eager to accommodate them.
- Nor did the Reinsurance Treaty necessarily reduce the danger of a clash over the Balkans.
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Bismarck used all his influence to encourage Britain, Italy and Austria to sign the Second Mediterranean Agreement (December 1887), again guaranteeing the status quo in the Mediterranean and Near East.
- In February 1888 Bismarck published the Dual Alliance, partly to warn Russia that Germany would stand by Austria if it came to war and partly to restrain Austria by making it clear that Germany’s obligations were limited to a defensive war.
Threats to Bismarck’s position
- If Wilhelm died, Crown Prince Frederick, a man of liberal views who was married to the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria, would ascend to the throne. It seemed likely that he would dismiss Bismarck and appoint a liberal chancellor.
Wilhelm II and Bismarck
- Wilhelm died in March 1888. He was succeeded by Frederick. Frederick, however, died from cancer only three months later. Frederick’s 29 year old son Wilhelm II then became Emperor.
Bismarck and Wilhelm II
- They also disagreed over social policy. Unlike Bismarck, Wilhelm was confident that he could win over the working class by a modest extension of the welfare system, including an end to child labour and Sunday working. Bismarck, in contrast, favoured repression.
- In 1889 he proposed to make the anti-socialist law permanent.
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In February 1890 the election was a disaster for Bismarck. His Conservative and National Liberal allied lost 85 seats while the Radicals gained 46 seats and the Socialists won 24 seats. The opposition was again in control of the Reichstag.
- At a stormy interview Bismarck nearly threw an inkpot at the Kaiser and then enraged him by letting him see a letter from Tsar Alexander III very disparaging of Wilhelm’s talents. Wilhelm sent Bismarck an ultimatum – resign or be dismissed.
