-Napoleon used intimidation and execution to eliminate any opponents who were found to be obstacles.11
-The government had forty men on the conseil d’état that chose other four hundred men to sit on Tribunate or the Legislature and vote, “a façade of democracy was retained in that members of municipal and departmental councils were elected by narrow plutocracies, but these bodies could only act in advisory capacities.”12
Economical Policy:
-Napoleon created the Bank of France that regulated the money supply, and paper money was abandoned in favor of metal currency.13
-Central treasury administered and supervised tax officials and prefects.14
8 Morris, Terry, et al. Europe 1760-1871 : 117.
9 Ibid : 125
10 Ibid : 121
11 Lefebvre, Georges. Napoleon From 18 Brumaire to Tilsit 1799-1807. New York.: Columbia University Press, 1969: 66.
12 Alexander, Robert. “Napoleon Bonaparte and the French Revolution.” Themes in Modern European History. London: Routledge, 1995: 43.
13 Morris, Terry, et al. Europe 1760-1871 : 118.
14 Ibid : 119
-Capital was in short supply; the technology was backward.14
-France remained largely in a ‘pre-industrial state.’14
-There were 12,000 workers employed in cotton spinning in Paris in 1807, few of them worked in factories.14
-Napoleonic warfare did stimulate iron production, but techniques were out of date, with charcoal still used for smelting.14
Foreign Policy:
-The Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797: France gained Belgium, parts of the Venetian Republic and large areas of Italy.15
-Treaty of Tilsit in June 1807 created an alliance between France and Russia.16
-Napoleon’s Continental System prohibited British goods from French territories after 1793.16
-The Berlin Decrees of 1806 blockaded Britain.16
-Napoleon couldn’t control the Continental System.16
-Napoleon’s ambitions and ego led to several failures and defeat in battles such as the Spanish Ulcer and the Russian Campaign of 1812, and Waterloo.16
Social Policy:
-The Civil Code confirmed the abolition of feudalism, equality before the law and freedom of conscience, and gave little to those who had brought church and émigré lands during the 1790s.17
14 Ibid : 119
15 Lefebvre, Georges. Napoleon From 18 Brumaire to Tilsit 1799-1807: 66.
16 Morris, Terry, et al. Europe 1760-1871 : 119.
17 Matthews, Andrew. “Napoleon and Europe: France 1799-1815.” Revolution and Reaction Europe 1789-1849. Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity, 2001: 81.
-Civil rights were granted.17
-Class privileges were eliminated and education became widely available.17
-“It was Napoleon who ultimately granted social status and his conception of what constituted merit proved very narrow.”18
-Napoleon restored ancien régime’s code of criminal procedure of 1808 and lettres de cachet and the Penal code of 1810.19
-Napoleon manipulated the population through propaganda and censorship, the practice or policy of censoring books, plays, films, reports etc., especially by government officials.20
-Napoleon used schools to bring up loyal subjects from the youth.21
Religious Policy:
- The Concordat united the French into one single nation.17
-Napoleon used the clergy particularly the bishops as an arm of the state to encourage conscriptions or relaying government propaganda and decrees.22
17 Ibid : 81.
18 Alexander, Robert. Themes in Modern European History: 48.
19 Ibid: 52.
20 Ibid: 47.
21 Durant, Will. “Napoleonic France 1800-1815.” Napoleonic Era. New York: Simon and Schlster, 1963: 264.
17 Matthews, Andrew. Revolution and Reaction Europe 1789-1849: 81.
22 Lee, Stephen. “The Reforms of Napoleon I.” Aspects of European History 1789-1980. London: Routledge, 1982: 81.
Evaluation of Sources__________________________________________________________
Napoleon From 18 Brumaire to Tilsit 1799-1807 by Georges Lefebvre, a highly recognized historian, has for purpose to present a French perspective on Napoleon to students. It is the Volume I of the two volume set which covers the period of 1799-1807 presenting a history of those years that were dominated by Napoleon Bonaparte. It provides a general history of the French people and the background to the revolution that gave Napoleon his chance, incorporating relevant quotation from other sources and primary documents, adding objectivity to the interpretations put forth. Nevertheless, as the author is French, one might question its objectivity in that the work could either be too pro-Napoleon or anti-Napoleon. Yet, Lefebvre would have had a better understanding of the subtleties of the French language; hence, his analysis of French documents concerning Napoleon would be more effective. However, the translation of Lefebvre’s book into English could be a problem, depending on the level of accuracy of the translation. In addition, he often wrote from a viewpoint which he felt the peasant of the time would have held 23 - neglecting the viewpoint of other French social class. Also, Lefebvre was influenced by the Marxist idea that history should be concerned with economic structures and class relations 24, therefore, could have neglected other aspects of history in his work.
On the other hand, Napoleonic Era, written by Will Durant, an American, is also a secondary source, published in 1963. The book was written with the purpose to provide insights of Napoleon’s character and personality, as well as, the events occurred in his era to students. This source is particularly valuable in that it is based on Napoleon’s point of view – filtered through the eyes of Napoleon. Nonetheless, there is more emphasis on the positive aspects of Napoleon (personality,
23 “Author : Georges Lefebvre.” Library Thing. <http://www.librarything.com/author/lefebvregeorges> 28 September 2008.
24 “Georges Lefebvre.” Wikipedia. 18 September 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Lefebvre> 28 September 2008.
character, reasons and purpose for his actions) than the negative aspects of Napoleon.25 It is merely a biography, a major limitation of the book. Thus, the readers are unaware of the public perspective; the viewpoint of the peasants and the bourgeois to the events and decisions made by Napoleon during his regime. Nonetheless, this source is valuable since it is written by a non-French historian, thus, adding objectivity to the interpretations put forth since the historian is not writing his native history.26 However, the book is rather dated and many documents regarding the Napoleonic era could have been released since then.
25 “Author : Will Durant.” Library Thing. <http://www.librarything.com/author/durantwill&norefer=1> 28 September 2008.
26 “Will Durant.” Wikipedia. 21 September 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Durant> 28 September 2008.
Analysis______________________________________________________________________
The Napoleonic era has been assessed by many historians who come into two different conclusions. Some historians accuse Napoleon of being the enemy of the revolution mainly due to his despotic rule while other historians support Napoleon as a son of the revolution due to the positive changes he has brought to not only to France but Europe as well. And other historians believe that he was neither an enemy nor a son of the revolution but a fusion of both:
he was not, however, merely a revolutionary or merely an enlightened despot; nor was he simply a combination of the two. He fused the Revolution and the ancient regime in such way as to produce an entirely new element.27
Napoleon underscored the rights and freedoms of the governed. Napoleon was a man who brought stability and unity back to France and was an enlightened ruler anxious to bring lasting reforms beneficial to the French people and to consolidate the gains of the Revolution.28 People were rewarded for their talent without the discrimination and prejudice regarding on their socioeconomic background. Nonetheless, Napoleon used propaganda in education to engrave his mentality and moral to the children of France, and intimidation and execution to eliminate any opponents. Napoleon was prepared to return to some of the practices of the ancien régime.27 “Napoleon and his plebiscites represent[ed] a logical next step towards fascism by giving tyranny an apparent mass justification.”29
Napoleon brought positive economical changes that benefited the French population. Napoleon created the Bank of France, which was eventually taken into state control where they regulated the money supply, and paper money was abandoned in favor of metal currency.
27 Lee, Stephen. Aspects of European History 1789-1980: 19.
28 Matthews, Andrew. Revolution and Reaction Europe 1789-1849: 76.
29 Alexander, Robert. Themes in Modern European History: 43.
In addition, central treasury administered and supervised tax officials and prefects.30 However, these financial and economic policies did not improve on manufacturing industries in the long-term. This was due to the reason that the birth rate was falling due to the wars France was engaged in. Without population growth, agriculture and industry changed very little. Capital was in short supply; the technology was backward. France remained largely in a ‘pre-industrial state.’
Napoleon’s foreign policy had some positive aspects. The Continental System was created to eliminate the monopolization of British trade within Europe. Napoleon’s foreign policy was mainly aimed to spread revolutionary ideas such as laws and ending of feudalism, dominate Europe, achieve economic stability through war and expansion, bring wealth through war and expansion, politically redraw the map of Europe, economic domination of Europe, and crush the great powers especially the Great-Britain. Nevertheless, Napoleon’s foreign policy created problems. The Continental System cut off trade with Britain which upset other nations such as Russia which eventually antagonized the European powers, and gave rise to nationalism especially Italy and Germany. Napoleon’s foreign policy was a failure in the long-term.
The Civil Code, one of the positive social changes, confirmed the abolition of feudalism, equality before the law and freedom of conscience, and gave little to those who had brought church and émigré lands during the 1790s. 31 Also, class privileges were eliminated and education became widely available. However, Napoleon’s social changes created problems regarding the rights of liberty, equality and education. Liberty was limited as Napoleon reestablished social elite, “it was Napoleon who ultimately granted social status and his conception of what constituted merit proved very narrow.” 32 Napoleon believed that wealthier few will eventually gain control over the majority of the wealth; there was limited equality under Napoleon’s reign.
30 Morris, Terry, et al. Europe 1760-1871 : 118.
31 Matthews, Andrew. Revolution and Reaction Europe 1789-1849: 81.
32 Alexander, Robert. Themes in Modern European History: 48.
Despite these negative aspects of Napoleon’s social policies, Napoleon’s religious policies united the French into one single nation. His religious policies had more negative sides as Napoleon used the clergy particularly the bishops as an arm of the state to encourage conscriptions or relaying government propaganda and decrees and reinforce its authority. Napoleon intended to use the church for his own purposes; his treatment of the Pope in the later years of the Empire gave strong warning against making any church a forum for discussion which might be considered hostile to the government.
Conclusion___________________________________________________________________
All in all, Napoleon, a product of the French Revolution, who seized power after the end of the Bourbon dynasty, was neither a son nor an enemy of the revolution but a fusion between the two. From the evidence found, it is clear that Napoleon used the ideas of enlightenment during his rule despite the fact that he sometimes made despotic decisions and changes. It is true that there were some negative aspects during Napoleon’s rule such as intimidation and execution. However, after the investigation, there seems to be more evidence that justify Napoleon as a son of the revolution. And this is due to the fact that he made progress, reforms and established order, stability not only in France but Europe as well. Also, the creation of modern national states in Europe such as Italy and Germany owes its existence to Napoleon. Furthermore, Napoleon was fully responsible for making France a powerful nation; one of the great-influential powers in Europe by uniting France, reinforcing nationalism by conquests, and gaining tremendous amount of resources and territorial acquisition. And, after the abdication of Napoleon, the French Empire once again faced domestic and foreign problems and started to fall apart.
Word Count: 1987
Bibliography__________________________________________________________________
Published Works:
Alexander, Robert. “Napoleon Bonaparte and the French Revolution.” Themes in Modern European History. London: Routledge, 1995.
Broers, Michael. “Napoleon’s Empire: From enlightened absolutism to colonial imperialism.” History Review. 2006.
Durant, Will. “Napoleonic France 1800-1815.” Napoleonic Era. New York: Simon and Schlster, 1963.
Herson Jr., James P. Napoleon: A Political Life. Parameters, Vol. 34, 2004.
Ihl, Olivier. French Politics, Culture and Society, Vol. 24, 2006.
Lee, Stephen. “The Reforms of Napoleon I.” Aspects of European History 1789-1980. London: Routledge, 1982.
Lefebvre, Georges. Napoleon From 18 Brumaire to Tilsit 1799-1807. New York.: Columbia University Press, 1969.
Matthews, Andrew. “Napoleon and Europe: France 1799-1815.” Revolution and Reaction Europe 1789-1849. Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity, 2001.
Morris, Terry, et al. “Napoleon, France and Empire.” Europe 1760-1871. London: Collins Educational, 2000.
Pilbeam, Pamela M. Themes in Modern European History, 1780-1830. Routledge, 1995.
Websites:
“Author : Georges Lefebvre.” Library Thing. <http://www.librarything.com/author/lefebvregeorges> 28 September 2008.
“Author : Will Durant.” Library Thing. <http://www.librarything.com/author/durantwill&norefer=1> 28 September 2008.
“Georges Lefebvre.” Wikipedia. 18 September 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Lefebvre> 28 September 2008.
“Will Durant.” Wikipedia. 21 September 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Durant> 28 September 2008.