For Bowlby the impact of prolonged separation on children was viewed as ‘maternal deprivation’. Bowlby describes this as being the temporary or permanent loss to a child of their mother’s care and attention. Bowlby believed that prolonged separation of the child from their mother, especially during the first five years of their life, was a major cause of ‘delinquent’ behaviour and mental health issues (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p.44).
Bowlby believed that an attachment between caregiver and child was fundamental to normal development. Observational and clinical evidence indicated that the absence or serious disruption of the attachment relationship, led to severe distress in the infant and sometimes to enduring behavioural-emotional problems. This can help to explain why Mark displays aggressive behaviour towards his peers, which can be attributed to ‘maternal deprivation’, separation from Hugo and a change in environment (Durkin, 1995 p.78-79).
Relationships with family and others are the primary forces in shaping an environment that encourages the child to achieve their full potential in terms of different domains of development, that is, physical, intellectual, social, moral and emotional growth. Language development is a critical component of learning because it promotes the development of cognitive processes and allows the child to attain self-control. It gives a child a way of expressing feelings other than acting them out behaviourally. Many studies identify an association between language delay and behavioural problems in young children. “His speech development is delayed…..progress made with speech has not been maintained…..he occasionally hits out at other children” (Case Study). There may be a hidden learning difficulty, but in Mark’s case it is more likely to be the cause of very limited social interaction with adults, low levels of stimulation and poor social relationships with other children as well as adults (attachment).
Bowlby and Ainsworth’s thesis derives from the ethological perspective. There is a diversity of strengths and limitations to their ideas behind the theoretical approach of Attachment. I chose Attachment theory as a human development theory, which would help explain Mark’s situation.
The limitations behind Bowlby and Ainsworth’s early thinking of attachment are that children can make attachment relationships to other people, not just their mother. They can also form several attachments. A child’s reliance on one exclusive relationship can be damaging, as it does not allow for supportive healthy relationships with others. Also, attributing problems in behaviour, and in later life, to maternal deprivation, (Bowlby) denies the impact of other factors especially the impact of privation. Which is a lack of basic needs, stimulation such as play and the role of others rather than just emotional warmth (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p.44-45). The other limitation to this theoretical approach is that it does not take into consideration cross-culture and class. For example in Germany, there is a very high demand for early independence and development of coping strategies that do not rely on assistance from others. As soon as infants are mobile, they are discouraged from staying too close to their mothers. To carry an infant or to respond to cries by offering contact is considered to spoil the child (Hand-out).
The way Bowlby came about his findings can be seen as a limitation to attachment theory. His findings were inspired by Lorenz’s (1952) studies of imprinting in baby geese. Can animal studies really be related to the way a human infant will grow and attach itself to others? Also with Ainsworth et al. (1978) and the Strange Situation, the sample and the findings has been criticised for not reflecting cultural variation in cross-cultural studies (Pendry, 1998 s.1-5).
The strength of this theoretical approach is that it is very influential. It takes into consideration early bonding, life events and circumstances and the impact of separation and loss from closeness. It allows us to assess the nature of relationships and realise strengths and at times weaknesses of these. It allows us to evaluate why meaningful and long lasting attachments and relationships cannot be formed at times. Compared to behaviourist and biological perspectives, ethological theory provides us with the most accurate and affective explanation of attachment.
Attachment theory provides part of a model of analysis in judging the quality of a relationship. It gives Social Workers a framework to work by to understand infant behaviour in certain circumstances and also why they may respond to a particular person, in a particular way. This can be essential in knowing when to intervene, or even remove a child, where there are concerns in relation to attachment (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p.46). Attachment theory’s findings provide an excellent framework to allow Social Workers to motivate parents and other caregivers to provide highly sensitive and responsive care to children.
The human growth and development theory that I have decided to use, to explain the situation of the adult’s in this family is Lifespan (stage) Theory. Here I will be using stage theorists who explain adult social development and behaviour: these include interpersonal relationships, social reasoning, social roles and adaptation to societal constraints and institutions.
Responses to change (such as joining or leaving the workforce, marriage, transition to parenthood) may have substantial consequences for an individual’s relations with others, and for the beliefs, attitudes, and social reasoning that he or she develops (Durkin, 1995 p.596).
A life course perspective means to adopt an approach that considers the whole of a person’s life as offering opportunities for growth, development and change.
Psychosocial approach adopted by Erikson considers both the individual psychology and the social context of people’s lives on their individual development. Erikson’s model “eight stage of man” explains human development as the process of forming our identity, our thoughts, emotions and personality, through the interaction between the individual, the society and situations in which they live. It represents a process of personality and identity development (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p.3-91).
Erikson pays more attention to the social context of development and referred to psychosocial stages. Each stage has a favourable and an unfavourable outcome. The outcome for any individual depends on how well the particular “crisis” or challenge of that stage has been successfully met. Alison would be categorised in Erikson’s young adulthood life stage, if his model is not used too rigidly. Erikson describes this stage as a challenge of “intimacy versus isolation”. Erikson stresses the significance of each life stage in preparing the person for the next stage and that where the person has experienced difficulties in negotiating one stage, they may revisit it later on in their lives (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p.93-94). In Alison’s situation, some of her difficulties may arise from her adolescence or even childhood experiences, for example she may have attachment issues which have been transferred into later life (issues of attachment with Mark). Alison at present is not able to meet Mark’s needs, not only in terms of basic, practical resources such as food and warmth, but also in respect of his emotional and support needs, as she is currently working full-time. We know that at present Alison is experiencing economic inequalities, in the fact that she has to work full-time to afford Mark’s nursery costs. This is putting a strain on their relationship. “For the last two years she has done shifts on a full-time basis…. Nursery costs still seem to be expensive…..change in Mark……. Who is clearly unhappy (Case Study).
Coming out of adolescence Alison would have experienced “identity versus role confusion”. She would have searched for a coherent personal and vocational identity. She would have had a favourable outcome and saw herself as a consistent and integrated person.
Alison’s marriage did break down and she is currently feeling isolated, and has moved back to live with her mother to reduce the isolation she feels by forming a relationship that may also provide financial rewards and support (help with care of Mark). She will feel as though she formed a superficial relationship with Hugo as the marriage broke-down and is now seeking to form a deep and lasting relationship back with her mother to also reduce isolation.
According to Erikson, Molly will be in Middle Adulthood, early Late Adulthood. I have categorised Molly under both stages, as she is currently experiencing outcomes of both of these. Erikson describes meeting the challenge of the conflict between “generativity versus stagnation” in Middle Adulthood. Molly’s physical health is declining and at present needs care at home. “Molly becomes ill with a heart condition…..Molly needs some care at home”. It would seem as though Molly did meet the challenges of “intimacy versus isolation” in Young Adulthood, as she has an intimate relationship with Patrick and seems to have formed an attachment with Mark. During Middle Adulthood Molly seeks to be productive and creative and to make a contribution to society. She has left Middle Adulthood with a favourable outcome, as she has the ability to be concerned and caring about others in the wider sense. She has been caring and concerned with Alison, Mark and Patrick. Leaving Middle Adulthood and entering Late Adulthood, Molly will review and evaluate what she has accomplished in life. I believe Molly will have a sense of satisfaction over her life and accomplishments, but I believe she will have a fear of death, due to Alison and Mark and Patrick, who depends on her so much.
I have decided to use Daniel Levinson’s (1978) “seasons of life”, to explain Patrick’s situation, due to the fact that Levinson’s theory was developed following research with men aged 35-45. Levinson states that adulthood involves distinct ‘seasons’. He saw some of these as being transitional phases of change, whilst others require tasks and decisions to be made (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p.96). Using Levinson’s model, Patrick could be seen to be in the stage of middle adulthood, which Levinson describes as a transitional phase, characterised by change. Patrick is experiencing a number of changes and new life challenges in his life, through which he will need to reconsider his own identity and role. Molly’s daughter Alison and her son Mark has recently moved back to live with her, and he will have to take a different approach and take up a father and grand-father role, which he is not happy with. “He feels that at their stage of life he and Molly should have time to themselves…….gradually becoming more depressed by his situation”. His relationship with Molly will gradually change due to her level of dependency she may adopt. He is used to having Molly for “support, continuity and structure to his daily life”. He will have to renegotiate roles with Molly, in order to encompass the evolving changes in their family situation. Patrick is going through a period of crisis, according to Levinson, during which the individual reviews his life structure, history, and prospects. There are several triggers for crisis, including coming to terms with aspects of the self that may have been repressed or disregarded in earlier years, while he was struggling to achieve career advancement. Loss of career through redundancy, ill health or early retirement is likely in Middle Adulthood (Beckett, 2002 p.148). Patrick has recently been made redundant, and as a result of this will loose his social network. He is feeling depressed as he does not know how he is going to build a sense of meaning and purpose of life. Work was important to his identity and the loss of work came as a blow for Patrick. He will now have to make a new identity and role for himself and come to terms with Molly’s illness, by coming more independent.
Erikson and Levinson’s theories have fully allowed me to understand the situation of the adults in this family. Both theories could not be used too rigidly. The strengths of these psychosocial staged approaches to explaining human development are that they can help to provide a useful starting point for discussion of change across the human life span. They provide reference points for the descriptions people give of their life experiences and to our understanding of their life course (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p.99.
The limitations to these theories are that they do not incorporate difference and diversity. Sexuality and gender are also not explained. For example, in Erikson’s stage of young adulthood (intimacy versus isolation), theories of homosexuality and the social significance of stigma and oppression are not integrated. They are too fixed and deterministic, in the sense that in reality it is not possible to divide real life neatly into stages.
Psychosocial staged approaches allow social workers to understand why people react in a particular way to certain events and circumstances in their lives. It gives a framework of the challenges and inequalities and oppression people may face if they do not fit the structure. It can also give a answer to how an individual can change their “expected outcome” of their lives and prepare for future expectations. It also allows social workers to be competent in knowing how a person can have past issues and expectations of their life outcome. It can show social workers that little life events can depict future outcomes.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. and Bell, S. M. 1970. Child Development. London: Academic Press.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. et al. 1978. Patterns of Attachment. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Beckett, C. 2002 Human Growth and Development. London: Sage Publications
Bowlby, J. 1988. A Secure Base. New York: Basic Books.
Crawford, K. and Walker, J. 2003. Social work and Human Development .Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.
Durkin, D. 1995. Developmental Social Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Levinson, D. J. 1978. The Seasons of a Man’s Life. New York: Ballantine.
