The cognitive approach, we studied memory. This is a term that is given to the structures and processes that involves storage and subsequent retrieval of information.
Memory involves three stages, which are: -
Encoding: put into memory.
Storage: maintain in the memory.
Retrieval: recovery from memory.
Different types of memory, these are: -
Short term memory: - the ability to remember things for a short-term period.
Long term memory: - the ability to remember things for a long-term period.
Theories of memory
There are different types to clarify understanding of how these processes work.
Episodic theory: - this theory focuses on real-life experiences, and more than just a store of material, (Bartlett 1932). Bartlett experiment suggests that there are three ways that our memories can change over a period of time, by using stories, such as, the war of the ghosts.
Simplification: memory occurs from dropping details, E.g., Egulac and Kamlama.
Transformation: - may tend to turn unfamiliar events into ones, which are more familiar, e.g., hunting seals may be changed to fishing.
Rationalisation: - this makes an original story easier to understand from changing some events and adding these to the story. Barlett also found that parts of a picture more likely to be remembered in the future of attention if drawn to them, if they are bizarre, (E.g., a dog in an under water scene).
Multi-store model: - this model assumes information is stored and rehearsed in specific places in the brain, (Atkinson and Shriffen, 1968). These places are called memory stores. Information received by storage area is passed on short-term store, (sts) once there it can be lost or passed on to the long- term store (lts).
The (lts) has three divisions; (tulving, 1972, 1985).
Episodic memory:- recalls events in our lives.
Semantic memory: contains information about rules, language, concept and ourselves.
Procedural memory: consists of information that we are not aware of, E.g., riding a bicycle.
This is a diagram of the brain that Atkinson and Shriffen consist of the memory.
Forgetting
Forgetting is like retrieval, which can occur at any stage of life. This is vital that our memory system, also it can be viewed as an advantage or handicap.
The question can be said, “Why do we” there are emotional factor, which are: -
- People bury emotional, traumatic experiences, from choosing to forget them.
- Emotions effect memory via ‘flash bulb’ memory. (colgrave 1899) extraordinary vital events trigger special memory mechanism, but these can be forgotten, the less we hear them.
- Negative emotions- lack of confidence in an examination.
- Blocking – repressed thoughts to forget negative experience.
- Extreme anxiety- ‘I’m going to flunk out’.
- Amnesia- alcohol, accidents to the brain, strokes, encephalitis. Electro- convulsive, short, shock (Ect) brain surgery.
Improving memory
- Chunking: recall of digits, (digit span, E.g., telephone numbers)
- Imagery: demonstrated by using a scene e.g. a scene from Alice and wonderland, Alice talking to the chesire cat and rembering stripes on the cats tail.
- Context: being in the same place where the event taken place.
- Recall/recognition: these two parts of single process retrieval from memory/context recognition.
- Organisation: if books were kept in order, E.g., in sections, the search would be seeded up.
- Search through memory: practice retrieval.
- pqrst method: reading, questioning, reading, self-recitation and test.
- Schema or script: the scripts that we know guide our understanding.
Perception
This how the brain interprets to help make sense of the world. The perceptual processes most determine: -
- What the objects are
- Where the objects are
- Where are the sounds
- Where is it coming from
In the vision of determining what is the object called at the process of: -
- Recognition- crucial for survival
- Localisation- determining where the objects are.
The process of perceiving involves the two sources of information:
Theories of perception
Constructivist- (Gregory 1966).
Top- down theory
This emphasises the role of the cognitive system to interpret sensory data.
Shape consistency- perception is not linked to one specific pattern. We do not maintain one interpretation of the figure or the object.
Data – driven -(Gibson 1988).
Bottom- up theory
See sensation as more use then perception, E.G., sensory processes studies on altered perception:- distortion studies, restored vision studies.
The development of perceptual processes
Nature vs. Nurture
What perceptual abilities do the newborn infants have?
What are the contributions of learning and maturation?
Infant studies
Preferential looking method- (Frantz, 1961)
Problem- (campus et.al, 1970~).
Recognising objects and people
Salapatex (1975)- an infant follows moving objects.
Alson (1981)- 3-month-old babies discriminate between objects.
Implications
Eye surgery-away etal (1973)
Critical period- Hubel and Wiesel (1962)
Perceptual deprivation study- experiments on cat’s and two month old monkeys.
The two psychologists that we focused on cognitive psychology are Gregory 1966 which he has studied perception and Gibson, 1988 he has studied the sensory from perception.
Perception- the process where the brain makes senses of information received from the senses.
Gregory (1966) suggests: perception is not simply determined by stimulus patterns: rather it’s a dynamic searching for the best interpretation of the available data.
Sensation- therefore, is a primary process of data collection from the environment. Perception is the brain may add to sensory input from memory or try rationalise what it believes it should be seen. Where information is ambiguous, the brain comes to the best solution it can. The physiological basis of sensation is specific from each of the senses or modalities. Each of the senses has receptors designed for its own specific job. If your eyes are damaged and can no longer can be used for seeing, your hearing tends to become more acute to compensate but you can’t use your ears for ‘seeing’, because the mechanism for action are totally different.
Evaluation
I found the cognitive approach difficult. I believe I found it difficult because again we do not spend that much time and didn’t discuss the important theories on the cognitive perspective.
I don’t know what is really right in my evaluation, all I can do is to write information from books and write in my own words. First I am going to be brief by saying and describing Gregory’s theory of perception and Gibson’s theory of direct perception.
Gregory’s theory of perception
Gregory, taken a view from the process of perception, which was an active one. The data receives senses resulted in a perceptual hypothesis by being set up. From individual’s experiences of the world and expectations from resulting the experiences providing mains to test hypothesis. The perceptual hypothesis was a ‘first guess’ at what the sensory data meant based upon experience. For instance, experience suggests that more distant objects appear smaller. If their cues of the sensory data to suggest. Something is distant (perspective cues) for instance, as in the ponzo illusion. If the senses show it to be the same size as something apparently closer, then the perceptual hypothesis will be larger, hence the illusion. Experience, context, motivation and emotional content, which provide means of the test provisional hypothesis, which has been set up. This is a top – down process.
Gibson’s’ theory of direct perception
Gibson (1986) has argued that there is need not to be processing stages interposed between the light falling on the retina and the responses made from the organism as a result. This is called direct perception. The theory stressed the function of the senses as a means providing for individuals all the information needed to enable them to interact with the environment. Gibson had a term with individuals, which was called ambient optical array, which consists all the light rays, which cover the retina. For example, a person moves from a sitting to a standing position this ambient optical array which changes; this provides new information about the environment as a basis for action. Objects from the environment and will have different texture gradients it depends on the distance. The ambient optical array providing direct sensory information rather than they’re being a need for the brain to interoperate incoming data in the light from experience. The information, which is processed, is not done cognitively but at a neutral level. This is the whole array in front of you to act. When there is an illusion, it’s just that the information is array than insufficient for an appropriate response.
An evaluation of Gibson’s’ approach
There are disadvantages with the ecological approach as it has been called:
- Gibson concentrated on activation of the visual system as a whole, but he did not make clear how the imports were transformed into visual perceptions.
- It seems more suitable as an explanation of innately programmed reactions to environment circumstances. The visual array triggers stereotyped activities directly. A bee buzzes against a closed windowpane in a reaction to a visual environment to total visual environment.
- Esysenck (1984) suggested the theory is in a sense too good. Visual stimulation provides so much information, perception should normally be perfect. But this is clearly not always the case. The tendency of large objects at great distances to look much smaller than they actually are, as in this case.
This evaluation has not been my own; I have looked at a certain book called “ inductory psychology”, written by Malim.T and Birch. A. I decided to write the evaluation in my own words as best as I can, I haven’t rearranged a lot of the evaluation, so it is similar. I decided to this because I didn’t really understand the cognitive approach, because the lack of time that we spent on it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cullis, Tracy, etal (1999) Psychology for you. Stanly Thornes, publishers limited, Cheltenham.
Malim, T. and Birch, A. (1998). Inductory psychology, Macmillan press Ltd, London.
Twinina, Keith. (2001) Success in psychology, John Murray, publishers limited, London.
