There has been very limited support for Eysenck’s hypothesis regarding neuroticism as predictive of delinquency (Furnham, 1984 cited in Furnham & Thomson, 1991). But it has been suggested that the influence of neuroticism might be selective, that is, its relationship between non-criminal respondents who have engaged in delinquent behaviour, is unclear (Furnham & Thomson, 1991). Furnham et al. (1991) observed that neuroticism may be more important in explaining delinquency among older, rather than younger participants. Heaven (1996) also found no significant relationship between the facets of neuroticism and self-reported delinquency. On the other hand, an association between psychoticism and self-reported delinquency has found widespread support (Eysenck & Gudjonnson, 1989; Eysenck 1981 cited in Heaven, 1993; Rigby et al., 1989). The current research has tried to extract certain specific personality traits from Eysenck’s psychoticism and neuroticism, namely aggressiveness and impulsiveness respectively.
The present paper attempts to find a relationship between the aforementioned traits of personality and self-reported delinquency. It was hypothesized that scores on self-reported delinquency would be positively correlated with individual aggressiveness and impulsiveness.
METHOD
Design
The design was a ‘within participants’ design which investigated whether there is a correlation between self-reported delinquency being the dependent variable and the personality traits (aggressiveness and impulsiveness) being the two independent variables.
Participants
The participants (n=50, 14 males and 36 females) were undergraduate students from Liverpool Hope University College. The majority of the opportunity sample was drawn from a campus library. Participation was restricted to individuals between the ages of 18 to 25 (M=20.56, SD=2.15) to eliminate age as a confounding variable. Prior to completing the questionnaire, participants were advised that the study is investigating personality correlates and delinquent tendencies instead of delinquency. Being labelled a ‘delinquent’ was not thought of as socially desirable and a softer tone needed to be in place, hence the use of the word tendency. The personality trait measures were also only labelled as ‘Trait A’ and ‘Trait B’ to ensure participants have less of an idea as to what is being measured. Participants were advised that the study is completely anonymous and the data being collected is solely for research purposes only.
Procedure
Participants were instructed not to put any identifying information on the questionnaires, which were typically completed in 8-9 minutes. No attempt was made to measure the refusal rate, as participation was voluntary and anonymous. However, it was clear that the majority of participants who were asked to participate did so. Participants were also aware of the voluntary nature of the questionnaire and that they could withdraw from the study at anytime. Participants were treated in accordance with the BPS Ethical Principles for Conducting Research with Human Participants (1993).
After an introduction to the study, written consent was obtained from participants, as the nature of data they were providing was sensitive. They were asked to indicate their age and gender as optional fields. Participants were then requested to go through the first part of the questionnaire (self-reported delinquency measure), and then decide whether they would like to continue or not. After completion of the questionnaire, participants were handed a brown envelope containing other completed questionnaires and were asked to place their questionnaire in the envelope by them, in order to ensure full anonymity. For details on other ethical considerations, please refer to Appendix E.
Materials
The delinquency questionnaire used was a self-reported measure of anti-social behaviour. Much evidence now supports use of self-reports by adolescents, as they are compatible with official records. A typical self-reported measure of delinquency looks at the less serious end up to serious criminal behaviour (Rushton & Chrisjohn, 1981). Both ends are valid indicators of offenders’ past behaviour. This is validated by support from victimization surveys, studies of the reliability and validity of self-reports and studies of biases in criminal justice processing (Hindelang et al., 1979 cited in Rushton & Chrisjohn, 1981). This and limited access to known institutionalised delinquents was the reason to use a self-reported measure of delinquency.
The questionnaire instructed participants to indicate whether they have engaged in the following activities and a 5-point Likert scale (Likert, 1932 cited in Langdridge, 2004) was anchored with the words, always and never. The questions asked were factual happenings which may have also been anchored with simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers but it was felt that respondents may not respond very truthfully as the data was being disclosed to a research group unknown to them. Examples of questions asked on the self-reported delinquency scale were:
- Did you ever consume alcohol when you were less than 18 years old?
- Have you ever seriously physically harmed someone, even for self-defence?
- Have you ever made personal use of prohibited substances (e.g. amphetamines to keep you awake at night, marijuana, ecstasy etc.)?
The personality measures were designed by the author and co-researchers (see Acknowledgements) to measure aggressiveness and impulsivity of participants. Please refer to Appendix A for full administered questionnaire.
The raw data from the questionnaires was then collated and scored. The self-reported delinquency measure was scored with 10 being the most positive (more delinquent) score and 50 being the most negative (less delinquent) score. Every negatively worded question on the personality measure was reverse scored i.e. if a participant had indicated ‘1’ (‘Yes’) as an answer to a negatively worded question it would actually be scored as ‘3’ as he/she is agreeing with the antonym of the personality trait. The range of scores was 10 as a minimum and 30 as a maximum. Hence, the lower the score on the questionnaire, the more the participant had qualities of the trait being measured.
64entire questions. On the personality measure of impulsiveness, question 10’s reliability was questioned after the results were analysed. If the question was deleted, a higher score of =0.872 would have been obtained. Upon debate, it was concluded that the question is not measuring an impulsive outlook but perhaps goes into the realm of how much a person may like the element of surprise. In spite of this, the questionnaire was generally deemed as reliable.
RESULTS
The hypothesis stating that there would be a relationship between self-reported delinquency and the two personality variables was partially validated. The descriptive statistics are as follows:
Table 1 - Descriptive Statistics
The age (M=20.56, SD=2.149), self-reported delinquency score (M=38.74, SD=10.00), total aggressiveness score (M=20.34, SD=3.479) and total impulsiveness score (M=18.38, SD=3.276) are tabulated above (Table 1). Analysis proved the data to be normally distributed and other assumptions of parametric data were also met (for graphical representations, refer to Appendix C). Therefore, it was appropriate to run a correlational analysis to determine whether the relationship was significant or not. Multiple regression analyses were also carried out (For full results, refer to Appendix B) to judge the precisely to what extent may the personality variables cause self-reported delinquent behaviour.
As predicted, the correlation between self-reported delinquency and aggressiveness (r=0.56, p<0.001) was a moderately strong relationship. On the other hand, the relationship between self-reported delinquency and impulsiveness (r=0.35, p<0.05) was a weak relationship, details of which are tabulated below.
Table 2 – Pearson Correlation
Nevertheless, it is important to note that the relationships were statistically significant even though the psychological significance may not have been convincing. The relationship between self-reported delinquency and aggressiveness as a personality trait had a positive correlation as did delinquency and impulsiveness. An unexpected relationship between aggressiveness and impulsiveness was also observed (r=0.35) but it was not statistically significant. The relationship may have occurred due to sampling error. Thus, it was concluded that aggressiveness as a specific trait has a positive relationship with self-reported delinquency.
DISCUSSION
The present findings are noteworthy in two important ways. Firstly, they confirm the importance of the psychoticism dimension, namely aggression as a personality trait in predicting self-reported delinquent behaviour. Contrary to the controversial status of previous research concerning Eysenck’s theory of criminality, the findings in this study were remarkably consistent. Self-reported delinquency was significantly associated with aggression, an element that makes up Eysenck’s dimension of psychoticism. Secondly, it adds to the growing literature showing no association between neuroticism and its elements as predictive of delinquent behaviour. In line with previous research (Furnham et al., 1991; Heaven, 1996; Rushton & Chrisjohn, 1981), impulsivity as an element of neuroticism, found no support for Eysenck’s predictions.
This lack of support for neuroticism was as clear as the evidence for psychoticism and this may be for a number of reasons. Eysenck could simply be mistaken when he declared neuroticism to be a predictive factor of self-reported delinquency. Rushton & Chrisjohn (1981) interpreted his hypothesis of neuroticism; in that, it played an interactional role, affecting the type of criminal activity under observation. Eysenck’s own hypothesis (1977) is almost agreeing with Furnhams (1991) critique when he implies neuroticism to simply be less crucial during early stages of development of antisocial tendencies. But despite the controversies in relation to this dimension, psychoticism and its behavioural aspects (interpersonal hostility, egocentrism, “affective insensitivity”) are unmistakably useful variables for prediction of delinquency.
A limitation of the sample could perhaps be argued by critics that the conventional way of measuring delinquency would have been through a ‘known-group’ design (Feldman, 1977; Krueger et al. 1994 cited in Romero, Luengo and Sobral, 2001) It has been suggested that the observed relationships between personality and detected delinquency i.e. apprehended delinquents, may simply reflect relationships between personality and likelihood of apprehension. Secondly, the institutionalisation of individuals may also influence personality. In the present study however, an undergraduate sample was studied who were not institutionalised and the study was ecologically valid. Known-group delinquency studies have failed to control the confounding variables of A.) The relationship between different personality variables leading to apprehension B.) The institutionalisation of delinquents may have influenced personality variables to quite an extent. Romero et al. (2001) confirmed this in their study of known-groups and self-reported measures, as they found no difference in strengths of relationships between delinquency and personality variables.
Another perhaps obvious limitation of the study is the fact that the sample could hardly be described as random or representative of young adults. In particular, the sample is heavily biased, containing students who by merit of their school results were selected into a university. Thus, future studies on delinquency would need to replicate the university data on a wider more representative cross-section of young non-criminal adults.
It is also important to note that much of the individual difference research into delinquency has had a tendency to encompass a variety of behaviours under the label “delinquency”. For example, Mak (1993) contained items measuring delinquency, which ranged from “viewing an R-rated movie” to “forcing someone to do sexual things with you against their will”. These items clearly cover a broad spectrum of the seriousness of the behaviour and even though they may be illegal, they differ in terms of affect on the victim (Heaven, Newbury & Wilson, 2004). Hence, despite the current paper identifying specific elements within the Eysenck’s personality dimensions, the extent to which particular behaviour is associated with the different dimensions, remains unanswered.
To provide an appropriate and reliable knowledge base for this relationship, it is crucial to identify theoretical predictive personality factors (such as Eysencks hypotheses) that are strongly related to delinquency. Perhaps future studies could potentially run long-term qualitative studies stressing on personality factors at different stages in individual delinquent careers. In this way, research could provide insight on the predictive reliability of certain personality variables leading to delinquent behaviour.
Despite specific consideration, findings of this type demonstrate the importance of including personality variables into criminological theories, which have conventionally been influenced, as discussed earlier, by sociological view points and little attention has been paid to individual differences. Even in supposedly “integrative” models (Elliot et al. 1985 cited in Romero, Luengo and Sobral, 2001) the personality factors have been ignored.
It is imperative to overcome this shortsighted and discipline bound methodology and to structure models that amalgamate biological and personality variables with psychosocial and socio-cultural aspects. Consideration of personality variables signifies the acceptance of cognitive, affective and behavioural tendencies that favour delinquency therefore improving understanding of these tendencies may improve prevention and treatment. Early intervention of complex problems like delinquency calls for immediate awareness and extensive research from all sources available.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to extend his gratitude to the fellow researchers, Crisenthiya Clayton, Colin O’Connor and Joanne Rogan who assisted in designing the questionnaire and collecting the data without whom this study could not have been carried out.
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APPENDIX A
Personality Correlates and Delinquent Tendencies
We are a group of students from Liverpool Hope University College studying specific personality traits and how they may have a correlation with a tendency towards delinquent activities. The following questions are solely for research purposes only. The information you provide will be strictly confidential and you are assured full anonymity. You may skim through the questions and decide whether you would be happy to provide us with your data and if not, you may return the questionnaire to the researcher without being questioned further. Please provide your signature below if you agree to participate in this study.
Date: __________
Signature of participant: ____________________
The following information is optional.
Age: ________
Sex: Male Female
Please indicate whether you have engaged in the following activities or not on a scale of ‘Always’ to ‘Never’.
1. Did you ever consume alcohol when you were less than 18 years old?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
2. Did you ever smoke a cigarette when you were less than 16 years old?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
3. Have you ever shoplifted for any reason?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
4. Have you ever carried a weapon (e.g. a knife) when out and about?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
5. Have you ever seriously physically harmed someone, even for self defence?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
6. Have you ever visited a prostitute?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
7. Have you ever caused damage to public property or property that isn’t yours?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
8. Have you ever made personal use of prohibited substances (e.g. amphetamines to keep you awake at night, marijuana, ecstasy etc.)?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
9. Did you ever have sex when you were less than 16 years old?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
10. Did you ever visit a casino or a slot machine when you were less than 18 years old?
Always | Mostly | Sometimes | Almost Never | Never
TRAIT A
1. Are you considered a gentle person?
Yes | Maybe | No
2. Did you avoid fights or rough games when you were a child?
Yes | Maybe | No
3. Do you think most pacifists are just cowards?
Yes | Maybe | No
4. Would you say that you lose your temper less often than most people?
Yes | Maybe | No
5. Do you sometimes get so annoyed that you slam doors or smash things around the house?
Yes | Maybe | No
6. Would you rather say you agree with somebody than start and argument?
Yes | Maybe | No
7. Do you ever get so angry with other people that you yell and swear at them?
Yes | Maybe | No
8. Do you enjoy scenes of violence in the movies?
Yes | Maybe | No
9. Are you often extremely furious with other people even though you refrain from letting them know?
Yes | Maybe | No
10. Do you avoid personal conflict if you possibly can?
Yes | Maybe | No
TRAIT B
1. Before making up your mind, do you consider all the advantages and disadvantages?
Yes | Maybe | No
2. Do you often buy things on impulse?
Yes | Maybe | No
3. Can you make decisions quickly?
Yes | Maybe | No
4. Do you often get into a jam because you do things without thinking?
Yes | Maybe | No
5. Do you generally do and say things without stopping to think?
Yes | Maybe | No
6. Do you worry about what the other person might think before you say something?
Yes | Maybe | No
7. Would you rather plan things or make a list rather than simply go ahead and start?
Yes | Maybe | No
8. Are you an impulsive person?
Yes | Maybe | No
9. Do you often do things on the spur of the moment?
Yes | Maybe | No
10. Do you think an evening out is more successful if it is arranged at the last moment?
Yes | Maybe | No
If you have any further comments or questions about our research, please do not hesitate to speak to us. We would like to thank you for your time and cooperation in filling out this questionnaire.
Appendix B
A multiple linear regression was carried out to determine how much of a personality variable can cause self-reported delinquency. Table 1 shows the multiple R value (r=0.57) in other words; approximately 57% of the change in self-reported delinquency may be explained by personality variables.
Table 1 –Model Summary
a Predictors: (Constant), ITOTAL, ATOTAL
The forced-entry method was used to assess whether any of the personality variables had a causal relationship with self-reported delinquency. The results are tabulated below:
Table II -Coefficients
Confidence limits were narrow, showing that 95% of the population slope is between 0.99 to 2.48 for aggression and –1.20 to 0.38. The F-value (f=11.303, DF=2) had an associated probability value of p<0.001, showing that the results were unlikely to have arisen by sampling error.
The multiple regression analyses results show that the association between the dependent variable and independent variable is a moderate association(r=0.76). Together, impulsivity and aggression accounted for approximately 30% of the variation in self-reported delinquency (adjusted r2). The regression co-efficient for aggression was 1.72 (95% CI = 0.99-2.48); and for impulsivity it was –0.41 (95% CI = -1.20-0.38). Since the confidence limits for aggression did not encompass a negative value, it can be concluded that the population regression coefficient for aggression is positive (t=4.71, p<0.001). This however cannot be accepted for the regression coefficient for impulsivity (t=-1.05, p>0.05). The standardized regression coefficients show that aggression is a strong predictor of self-reported delinquency than impulsivity.
It may be seen from the above scattergram that there is a positive relationship between self-reported delinquency and individual aggressiveness (for specific statistics of the line slope, refer to Appendix B).
Likewise it may also be seen from the above scattergram that impulsivity has no correlation with self-reported delinquency (for specific statistics of the line slope, refer to Appendix B).
There is some disagreement surrounding Eysenck’s labelling of the personality dimension as “psychoticism” which he elsewhere refers to as “toughmindedness” (e.g. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975) For critical reviews consult Block (1977) and Howarth (1986).
For the biological basis of Eysenck’s theory, refer to Gray (1970) and Eysenck & Eysenck (1976).