The demographics of Denmark show a growing and large number of pensions with a corresponding reduction in the workforce needed to pay for old age benefits. As in the case of many developed nations Denmark faces the challenges of an ageing population and the workforce is shrinking. In the upcoming years the larger generations of the World War ll era will reach retirement age while relatively smaller generations of the 1980’s will gradually begin to enter the labour market.
The future development of the Danish society will therefore depend among other things whether we are capable of securing a successful integration of foreigners. This includes not only the residing foreigners in this nation but also those that are expected to immigrate in the future.
As of January1, 2002, there were 415,331 immigrants and descendants in Denmark, which is 7.7% of the entire Danish population. Immigrants and descendants are statistically considered to be one group however,Foreigners (Dan.Udlændinge)This statistical definition includes all immigrants and descendants regardless of citizenship. The activity rate of immigrants is lower than that of persons from Danish origin. Immigrants from no-western countries account for the lowest activity of 51.4%.
The majority of the Hotel and accommodation industry expects higher turnover in the years to come.The basic wage difference between men and women in the trade, Hotel and Restaurant industry is 27.6% with men earning 150.5 DKR per hour as compared to 118 DKR per hour earned by women. The Danish labour market is to a large extent dominated by collective bargaining.
Almost 80% of wage earners and around half the private employers are organised, mainly in the Confederation of Danish Trade Unions (Landsorganisationen i Danmark, LO) and the Danish Employers’Confederation(DanskArbejdsgiverforening,DA)respectively.
2.3.3 Sociocultural Factors
Danish working culture is characterised by open and informal dialogue between employees and management. Teamwork plays an important role in many workplaces, and mutual respect is a key term. In many Danish companies, bosses are seen more as "team leaders" than as the key decision-makers. For that reason, during meetings and when making decisions, everyone is encouraged to express an opinion in order to give consideration to many viewpoints. Nevertheless, the final decision lies with a team of top leaders. Manners between colleagues are informal and relaxed, and a sense of humour plays an important role in everyday life. The Danish leader wishes to appear part of the group, and to express its will. Passionate speeches are rare, disarming jokes are common.
Meetings constitute an important part of Danish business culture, and are the most usual way of keeping colleagues and employees up to date. Danes prefer meetings to be short, well structured and with a preponderance of factual information. Paperwork will generally be kept at a minimum. However, it is seen as a matter of course that meetings proceed according to a written agenda and that they result in a written summary recording the most important decisions and agreements.
Social life at work is concentrated around the lunch break. Many Danes prioritize family life very highly and go straight home after work. However, many workplaces have a tradition of meeting with colleagues on Fridays after work to have a beer. The social climax of the year is typically the Christmas lunch in December, and many workplaces furthermore have a party or another social event during summer.
In comparison with other European countries, Denmark is one of the most progressive when it comes to equality between men and women. Moreover, Denmark ranks number one when it comes to the greatest percentage of women working outside the home and many women hold top positions in Danish companies.
Denmark is characterised by gender equality and Danish business companies are “ equal- opportunity” employers. Women, both employees and self-employed, are entitled to maternity leave from four weeks before the birth. With the new rules concerning maternity leave which came into effect on 20 March 2002, parents have the right to a total of 52 weeks leave with full daily cash benefits.
Denmark is a social welfare state in which the quality of life and environmental issues are given key priority. Foreigners working in Denmark are usually covered by the Danish social security
legislation as soon as they start working. In certain cases, a requirement of permanent residence in Denmark may has to be met. There are, however, certain fixed waiting periods for the various types of services, e.g. health insurance services, health benefit, unemployment benefit, compensation according to the Occupational Injury Act etc. Under certain circumstances you may apply to be covered by the social security in your home country instead.
The literacy rate in Denmark is very high (99%). English is the first foreign language in Denmark, know and practised by 78%of the population older than 16 years. Christianity is practised by most of Danes in Denmark with Islam as a biggest religion for the minorities.
2.3.4 Technological Factors
The rapid development of technology is affecting the businesses. Changes in technology have changed the way businesses operate. Online booking is a good example of it. Faster changing development in technology creates a need to react quickly for hotel operations to meet the diverse need of the customers.
70% of the Danes have computers at home and 87% have internet acces.(support by figures).Customers seek for faster and access to the services .Therefore, it has become essential for the hotel properties to have a website and offer online booking to the customers. Customers seek for surprises by the service companies and expectations are becoming higher and higher from the service providers i.e. hotels.
Customer Relationship Management is in great practice in the service providers in the field of Hospitality.
2.3.5 Conclusion on PEST analysis
According to the findings of the PEST analysis above, it can be said that the demographic of the workforce is changing in Denmark like other European countries and there will be a greater need of the integration of the foreigners in the workforce especially immigrants in Denmark because the participation level of the immigrants in the labour market is comparatively very less than the Danish. Though Denmark provides equal opportunity for the men and women in the labour market but still men are earning more wages than women when it comes to Hotel and Restaurant industry. Teamwork is important in the Danish working culture and Danish leader appears as a part of group. Well-being of the workforce is one of the major concerns of the Danish government and various benefits are offered to the workforce i.e. maternity leave. Foreigners working in Denmark also enjoy the social security benefits. Mostly Danes use Internet to a great extent and online purchasing of the products and services is common.
2.4 Customer analysis
The more we understand and appreciate the diverse individuals and groups, the better we can address their needs-even with things as simple as offering certain amenities foods and services. (Fred Kleisner).
Diverse group of customers have diverse needs. The business traveller has different needs such as access to technology, good room service, business facilities and other amenities i.e. child care etc. Family travellers seek for the service concept, which is having fun for the children and suitable to the diet issues of the children i.e. menu for children. Health and safety is also an important concern for the guests. Properties have to facilitate the guests with their diverse needs i.e. Non-smoking rooms, gyms, swimming pools and spas.
Younger consumers are more likely to be concerned with combating stress and enhancing physical performance. Older guests look for medical facilities while choosing a hotel for their stay. Growing interest in the ecological products and Green issues have changed the ways hotel operate.
Customer service is considered the life’s blood of the hospitality industry. Therefore, companies strive to identify the needs of diverse individuals and then design service concept accordingly. A few examples of how companies strive to meet and exceed the needs of the customers and how it makes the difference can be read in the appendix.
Denmark welcomes hundreds of thousands of tourists every year. Tourists mainly come from Sweden, Norway, United Kingdom, United States Of America, Germany, Japan and South east Asia. A detailed list of nights spent in Danish hotels by foreign tourists can be seen in the appendix.
Point of Discussion
The point of discussion is that if the workforce of the hotel provides a bit reflection of the guests of the hotel, it will help the hotel to better understand the needs of the guests. It will allow the employees of the hotel to communicate with the guests in the ways that are meaningful to them and to meet their unique needs. “Think as the guest think” will make the hotel effective in meeting guest’s needs because of the greater understanding of these needs by its diverse workforce.
This discussion leads me to think that How can “Four Seasons” recruit, retain, train and compensate the diverse workforce which can ensure the desired culture? I will be discussing these issues in the later part of my report.
Chapter 3
3.1 Human Resource Management System
One of the biggest challenges for the management of the Hotel will be to develop an effective Human Resource System for the hotel, which can ensure diversity in all parts of the HR-system i.e. Job analysis and design, Recruitment, Selection, Orientation, Training and Development, Performance Appraisal and Compensation.
3.1.1 Job analysis and Design
Properly designing jobs staffed by employees well suited to their work is an important first step in providing first step in providing superior guest service ( Mullens 1985).
How can the management design the jobs, which suits the individuals the best and which can ensure diversity while tasks to be accomplished working in diverse teams?
The management of the hotel can design the jobs after having knowledge about each job and its requirements. First step in gaining that knowledge is to identify the jobs that what jobs are to be fulfilled. Collecting information (tasks to be fulfilled, personal qualities required by the job) about the identified jobs will lead management to Job Descriptions, Job Specifications and job performance standards of the identified jobs. Guidelines provided by Job descriptions,job specification and job performance standards will enable the management to select the right person for the right job. Do you want to write about the Job Characteristic model here?
3.1.2 Recruitment
Hotel will have to follow the Danish Government’s regulation i.e. equality in gender, when recruiting the staff.
What is the sources hotel can use to attract diversity staff? Depending upon the nature of jobs, Hotel can use various techniques to attract the variety of staff i.e. newspaper advertisements, by placing advertisements in the educational institutions (for part-time vacancies), women’s associations public private employment agencies, old-homes and hotel labour unions. Muslims are one of the biggest minorities in Denmark coming from Turkey, Pakistan, Morocco and Somalia. Putting advertisement in their local language (Arabic and Urdu) newspapers will help the hotel to attract diverse workforce.
Similarly, to attract the employee’s form the other immigrants from Sweden, Norway etc. and from the nations, which mostly visit Denmark, hotel can advertise in their home country or in their local language in Denmark as well.
Some positions in the Front office are well suited to the employees with physical handicaps or disabilities. For example, a wheelchair user may be qualified to work as a telephone operator or reservations agent, since such jobs don’t require standing or a great deal of moving within a working area. Hotel can attract this pool of employees by contacting the local Government offices (Komune) or the schools which providing training to disabilities. A big source of recruitment for the hotel can be Walk-ins and Write- ins.
3.1.3 Selection
Valuing diversity should be a consistent part of the corporate and regional management of the hotel to develop a culture in the hotel where every employee value the differences other employees have. That’s why selecting a right person for the right job is one of the main management functions. Choosing the applicants from a written test related to the specific job will help the management to check qualified persons for the jobs at the first step. Interview of the chosen candidates again will help to choose a right person according to the nature of Job descriptions and specifications of the job. For example good language, mathematical and keyboard (typing) skills are frequently required in the Front office work. Checking the employees’ references will provide the hotel with the selection of qualified persons to choose from.
Because of high degree of guest contact, managers will seek personality traits i.e. flexibility, professional attitude and well groomed appearance etc. in the applicants for such jobs. Interviewing a diverse pool of applicants, management may use the Hallo effect and Stereotyping for a quick selection process but the management of the hotel should be aware of the problems i.e. wrong selection associated with such perceptions in the selection process.
Discussion of the “Customer analysis” will make the management think to select persons having different personalities and from various backgrounds. Selecting the persons that can better understand the needs of the community and the clients will help the “Four Seasons” to establish loyalty pool of the customers. For example, if the hotel starts receiving a large number of Japanese tourists, it will be a nice idea to select some workforce in one of the guest-contact jobs i.e. Receptionist at the hotel.
3.1.4 Orientation
To help new employees fit in, orientation programs familiarize employees with their roles, the organization, its policies, and other employees. Orientation of the staff in the hotel can include the
elements i.e. a consistent time, mandatory attendance of all new employees and a tour of the entire facility including all the revenue departments i.e. Sales and Front Office and back office i.e. Laundry, Housekeeping and employee’s cafeteria. A greeting from the senior management with
important information on the hotel’s culture and philosophy of diversity will be an important step to ground the diversity in the behaviour of employees from the very first day of the job.
A greeting may include the statement about diversity as follows
“ We recognize and appreciate the importance of equal access and opportunity for all. We work closely with a variety of national, state, and local diversity organizations to assist hotels in creating and developing a diversified hotel management team. We are an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity talent acquisition service provider and do not discriminate on the basis of race, colour, gender, sexual orientation, marital status, pregnancy, national origin, veteran, ancestry, age, religion, disability, citizenship status, or any other group protected by law.”
A total agenda of the orientation will help the new employees with information of to whom to meet, when to meet and what to discuss. Handbook about the hotel’s services and products and rules for personal grooming will be a shortcut to understand the working principles in the hotel. As an important part of the orientation, hotel should communicate the benefits i.e. insurance benefits, rest breaks, retirement program and training and education benefits etc. offered to the employees. Job location, job tasks, job objectives and relationship to other departments are also the important elements of effective orientation.
3.1.5 Training and Development
One of the most effective ways to motivate management and employees towards the desired culture of diversity is to train them. Training provided by he hotel includes information not only about the jobs and skills but also about the issues related to racial, ethnic, gender and other workplace conflicts. Diversity training will help the managers of the hotel to learn value individual differences, cross-cultural understanding, and examining and confronting stereotypes. Trainers should reflect the learning principles i.e. Participation, Repetition, Relevance, Transference and feedback while designing a training program. Cross training will help the employees of the hotel to acquire the skills in the other departments and thus enhances their possibilities of further development in their career. Hotel can evaluate these training programs by conducting performance appraisals to check effectiveness of such programs. Training will provide the support and encouragement to the hotel’s staff to further develop their careers and increase their contribution to the organisation through the enhancement of their skills and abilities.
3.1.6 Performance Appraisals
To ensure whether the managers benefit from the diversity training programs and applications of such programs in the daily work life, one of the techniques used by the Human Resources is to conduct appraisals. Management can make effective appraisals focusing on employee’s job performance and the steps that the employee can follow to improve his/her job skills and performance. A plan of action by the managers and each employee can be developed to achieve specific goals.
3.1.7 Compensation Management
One of the key initiatives in the compensation management is that the hotel should strive for internal and external equity. Job descriptions, Job specifications and job evaluation will be the helping tools in the compensation management of the employees. Equal pay system for the both sexes for the same type of work will ensure internal equity in the hotel. Paying the employees according to what other hotels are paying for the same kind of jobs will establish external equity.
Hotel can design incentives (direct compensation) to acknowledge staff members who excel in their work. Recognition dinners or events, complementary weekend packages and gift certificates are few examples of such incentives. The hotel to award teams can use gain sharing for their extraordinary efforts made for the hotel. Hotel can use Benefits and services (indirect compensation) as a motivational tool described under the heading of Motivation later in this report.
3.2 Motivation of diverse workforce
One of the greatest challenges of the hotel will be the developing of a highly motivated staff because nothing is more powerful than the motivated staff when it comes to services in the hotel.
One may assume that money is the motivator factor when it comes to the hotel employees. To some extent, it seems true but the Motivational theories have provided us the understanding of the relationship of money with the motivation.
Herzberg considers money (salary) along with working conditions, supervision, company policy, relationship with supervisor, relationship with peers and security as Hygiene factors (factors that when adequate, may eliminate job dissatisfaction but do not necessarily increase job satisfaction) but money can be a motivator when used in terms of incentives and stock options. . Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth are factors that can bring job satisfaction to the employees.
McClelland proposed that the needs for achievement, power and affiliation are major motives in work. Management of the hotel will have to see a fit between these motivational factors and the employee’s needs. Findings of unequal pay in service industry (hotel and restaurant industries) in Denmark may cause dissatisfaction at work for the women because according to equity theory employees perceive what they get from a job situation(outcomes)in relation to what they put into it (inputs)and then compare their input outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of relevant
others. Equality in giving pay and rewards and especially incentives and giving the employees what other hotels are not giving (some examples below) can help to have a good motivated staff.
The diverse employees have diverse needs. Women, singles, senior citizens and physically disabled employees, all have different types of needs to be fulfilled to get motivated. College students look for a flexible work schedules. Similarly, a father may prefer to work midnight to 8A.M shift in order to spend time with his children during the day when his wife at work. Hotel will have to think in terms of flexibility to understand the diversity of needs to maximize the motivation of its staff.
Flexible work schedules, job sharing and flextime can be a motivating tool to such individuals. It also might include offering flexible leave policies for the immigrants who want occasionally to make extensive return trips to their homeland or allowing employees who are going to school to vary their work schedules from semester to semester. Providing childcare facility for the children of mothers/single mothers can be a highly motivating tool for such employees of the hotel. Ethnic meal dinners, personal concierge service, telecommuting, adoption benefits and relocation benefits can also be offered according to the individual needs of the employees.
3.3 Diversity in Teams
Customers benefit because we have talented employees. Our teams benefit by the diversity of perspectives and learning that comes from understanding a little bit different way of doing things.And that comes through having people of all backgrounds ,but never reducing the bar on the talent or the capability. (Kevin Rollins,Dell’s President and Chief operating officer)
Teamwork is the key to successful hotel operations. A careful selection of the team members is essential to create a balance of diversity in teams. “Heterogeneous teams bring multiple perspectives to the discussion, thus increasing the likelihood that the team will identify creative and unique solutions.” Management of the hotel will be in need of the employees in their teams who have different backgrounds and histories, different communication styles and different ways of thinking to fulfil all various roles in the teams. C. Margerison and D. McCann described nine potential roles of the teams i.e. Creator-innovator (initiates creative ideas), Explorer promoter (Champions ideas after they have been initiated), Assessor developer(offers insightful analysis of options), Thruster- organizer(provides structure), Concluder producer(provides direction and follow-through, Controller-inspector(examines details and enforce rules), Upholder maintainer(Fights external battles), Reporter adviser (Encourages the search for more information)and linker(coordinates and integrates). Management can choose a fit between these roles to organize the team members having various backgrounds and depending upon the size of the team, individuals may play multiple roles. The concept of diversity will lead managers to a clear understanding of the strengths of every individual employee and to allocate roles to them according to their strengths.
The wider the point of view, the more effective the team can be. But for this to happen, people will have to learn see each other as equals, and that not easy. Though ambiguity, complexity, confusion, miscommunication , difficulty in reaching a single agreement and difficulty in agreeing on specific actions are the problems with diversity teams but teams overcome to these problems with the passage of time by cooperating with others, sharing information and confront differences and become more cohesive. Diversity training will help to increase the group cohesiveness and thus reducing the turnover.
3.4 Communication in the workplace
Developing a culture for the “Four Seasons” which has roots in the diversity of its employees will need a proper communication within all departments and all employees irrespective to gender , race and organizational status.
“We listen fully to a different point of view before making a judgement and strive for win-win situation”. (Shari Caudron , Rohm&Texas Inc.).Listening to the employees and frequent discussions with them will help the managers to learn about the employees needs and to reach solutions on the
problems effecting their work and daily life. Employees from both the sexes working in cross-functional teams can develop effective communication skills, which will strengthen the diversity culture in the hotel.
3.5 Leading the diverse workforce
How can leaders drive diversity initiatives that unite everyone around hotel’s business objectives and desired culture?
Managing the diversity in the hotel employees will be much based on the leadership style managers choose to lead the employees differentiating in age, gender, disability, race and class.
Different situations require different leadership styles. In fact, the most successful leaders are those who are able to adapt their style to the unique demands of the situation.
Situational Leadership is a model of leadership behaviour that reflects how a leader should adjust his or her leadership style in accordance with the readiness of the followers.By following this leadership style, management of the hotel will better arrange their training programs about the latest issues surrounding diversity according to the readiness of the team members.
The democratic style of leadership will help the management of “ Four Season” to hear the concern and issues of employees and will allow the employees to have a say in the decision making process.
Value-based management is the business philosophy and management system for competing effectively in the global market place, based on inherent value, dignity and empowerment of each person –particularly each employee, customer and supplier.
By ensuring that the managers and supervisors always strive to empower and encourages its staff to make them responsible and give them the freedom to make decisions in the area directly affecting
their lives, work and at the level of their competence will help the “Four Seasons” to have a desired culture of diversity.
Chapter 4
4.1 Benefits of Diversity Management
Cendant Corporation developed a comprehensive group of diversity initiatives i.e.(1) Franchise development among minorities, (2)Supplier development,(3) Career development,(4)target marketing. It helped the Cendant to execute franchise agreements for more than 50 hotels with minority franchisees; receive a B(highest grade awarded to any hotel company)in the NAACP’S1998 grading of minority progress in the hotel industry.
Diversity management program can enhance the Four Season’s ability to create better organizational policies in recruitment, retention and development of its team members. Diversity in teams enhance the personal effectiveness and creativity, better interpersonal communication among the team members, speed up the solving of disputes and create a climate of fairness and equality. Diversity management programs will benefit the “Four Seasons” in the creation of emotions, attitudes, and behaviours and focus of appreciation of differences among cultures among its workforce. Diversity management program will help the “Four Seasons” in the retention of its employees and thus will result in low turnover.
The concept of having a diverse workforce can benefit the “Four Seasons” in having a broader pool of candidates to choose from and a broad range of backgrounds of employees results in a more flexible and responsive workforce. Another benefit is that the mature aged staff can have a steadying and responsible influence on younger staff. Having a diverse workforce that more closely reflects the diverse needs of the clients will better understand to fulfill these needs of the clients and thus will results in increasing sales and client numbers for the “Four Seasons”.
Having diversity in Human Resource function can result in benefits, training and policies that are more effective because that are developed by the people who better understand the needs of the “entire” range of workers. Some of the diversity population may live a different lifestyle (older workers and stay at home parents) that prefers part-time work. This may allow the “Four Seasons” to fill in “spot” needs while at the same time providing this diverse group with additional income opportunities.
Providing the equal pay for equal work and hiring the employees closest to the customers will help the “Four Seasons” to make a strong image in its employees and clients.
4.2 Challenges and Issues
Diversity in teams can slow down the decision making process of the team but the overall quality of the decisions are likely to improve and the number of times that decisions need to be revisited decreases.
Diversity can reduce the cohesiveness of the group and can result in employee turnover. It seems claims that males working in homogeneous environments are more attached to co-workers to their
jobs. As heterogeneity increases, however, absenteeism and turnover increase among males. Interestingly, it doesn’t exist in women or minorities. (Chatman et al.,1998). Developing the culture of diversity i.e. diversity training etc. will help the employees understand the value and importance of diversity and of focusing on the goals of the organization rather than individual needs.
Negative attitudes and behaviours can be the barriers in the organization diversity because they can harm working relationships and damage morale and work productivity. (Esty., et al, 1995).Negative attitudes and behaviours in the workplace include prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination which should not be used by the management for hiring ,retaining and termination practices.
Selection of trainers for diversity training of the management and staff of the hotel from “out groups” may result in the failure of the training because trainer from inside the property may carry more authority with trainees and are better able to relate to, and overcome, their fears and prejudices.
4.3 Initiatives for the Winning Culture
The above discussion of the benefits of the diversity will lead me to suggest some initiatives which “Four Season” can develop, given as under
- Formal induction process for all new recruits
- Equal opportunities policy, emphasizing equal opportunities as an organizational value
- Assessing managers on equal opportunities as part of their appraisal
- Eliminate age criteria from selection decisions
- Provide Diversity training to staff and managers
- Assessing managers on diversity management as part of their appraisal
- Assessing all employees on their adherence to the values
Chapter 5
Conclusion
A diverse workforce is a reflection of changing world and market place. Diverse work teams bring high value to organizations. Demographics aren’t the only things changing-, individual mindsets are changing dramatically, with more emphasis on being accepted and respected as individuals. Respecting individual differences will benefit the “Four Seasons” by creating a desired culture of diversity “Winning Culture”. Diversity management will benefit for the “Four Seasons” by creating a fair and safe environment where everyone has access to opportunities and challenges. Management tools in a diverse workforce should be used to educate everyone about diversity and its issues.
Brotherten Bob “The International Hospitality Industry”PP95
The search for the best practices among competitors or non-competitors that lead to their superior performance.
Statistical year book of foreigners in Denmark, Ministeriet for Flygtninge, Indvandrere og Integration)
Statistical Yearbook,2002,2003-Labour Market and Earnings
Denkmark Statistik,www.dst.dk).
(Arbejdsministeriet&Ligestillingsrådet, Lønseddel, Ligeløn,Rapport om lønforskelle mellem kvinder og mænd I Danmark,Juni 2000,page 21)
A detailed list identifying all the key duties of a job as well as reporting relationships, additional responsibilities, working conditions and any necessary equipment and materials.
A list of the personal qualities, skills, and traits needed to successfully perform the tasks outlined by job descriptions.
Performance standards set forth the goals to be achieved on a job.
Job seekers who arrive at the HR departement in search of a job
Those persons who send written enquiry for a job.
Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.
Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.
Werther B.Williams, Davis Keith, Human Ressources and Personnel Management,4th edition, pp 251
Stephen ,Decenzo David,Fundamentals of Management ,3rd edition.,pp318
The practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour –a-week job.
Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core.S
Robbins P. Stephen ,Decenzo A. David,”Fundamentals of Management”3rd edition, page 303
Robbins P. Stephen ,Decenzo A. David,”Fundamentals of Management”3rd edition, page 298
Elise Cross,Elsie Y.Cross Associates,Inc.)
Robbins P. Stephen ,Decenzo A. David,”Fundamentals of Management”3rd edition, page 355
The term used to describe a leader who involves employees in decision-making, delegates authority, encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals and uses feedback to coach employees.
http://www.cesj.org/vbm/vbmsummary.htm
(Best Practices in Human Resources, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly)