In the next chapter two chapters he looks at the two extremes of the responses to the conception and practice of black inequality, protest and accommodation, especially he illustrates two Black Americans who epitomized to two diverging conceptions of how the society should be organized , Ida .B Wells and Booker .T. Washington.
Chapter is dedicated to the work and protest of the colored Journalist Ida b. Wells and her campaign against Lynching, he also address's the formation of women's clubs and groups of colored descent, and the raising of international awareness of the inhumanities of lynching in Southern America.. Fairclough described her campaign against lynching as the starting point in the modern civil rights struggle, the beginnings of the first organized fight against the concept of white supremacy.
The chapter describes the harsh realities of lynching as a method of justices and the general apathy and unofficial acceptance as a method of justice in the southern. He makes clear to mention that it was accepted by both the people and the officials as a method of justice and the detention of perpetrators were never forthcoming, despite the fact that many of the perpetrators were boastful of their deeds.
The ideological justification of lynching was the fact that the black man was savage brute, it was justification for deny blacks the vote, discrimination I the workplace, discrimination in their ability to be juries and it expresses the need for strict segregation by stressing black sexuality and the awful consequences of social equality, which was seen as the rape of white women and the hand's of black men.
He points out that during the 1880's the black organisation, did little more that denounce the process of lynching and their response were caution and apologetic. It was Ida B.Wells an outspoken Journalist who challenged the idea of lynching as a justification of rape, even denying that lynching was a form of justice against rape but it was a method of terror and inhumanity to surpress the economic progress of the black man because of the fears of economic displacement if the black man advanced.
Wells started her journalism career as an unpaid contributor to a local black newspaper but soon she was expanding her base by selling articles to newspapers such as the "the American Baptist", The Indianapolis world" the Kansas city dispatch and the New York Freedman .In 1889 she became part owner and editor of the Memphis free speech. Wells openly depicted the idea of Black men rapeing white women but put for the few of a consensual sexual act between the two parties in once of her article. The south retaliated Threading to hang the writer of the article he two business partners fled an she moved to the North to avoid retribution. Her migration to the north allowed her galvanize the artrocies of lynching and the and gain support for her movement against the inhumane method of justification.
In 1895, she published a Red Record that investigated the circumstances surrounded the occurrence of lynching and he was revealed that only 1/3 of the lynching cases in the south there was ever a justification of rape, this emphasized her point of the brutality of the process and lackluster justification.
She was pivotal in raising international awareness of the inhumanities against lynching .Her 1893 trip to London helped to gained disapproval for the brutality of the process and embarrassed the united states on the international stage. Her most important allies emerged in the 1890's with the formation of black women’s clubs and in1896 the National association of colored women were formed. By 1900 the NACW had 18,000 members in 300 local clubs. She was directly involved in the formation of the Women's Loyal Union .These clubs supported Wells attack on lynching echoing her denial that rape was either a justification or a cause .In raisin the subject of interracial sex Wells challenged the stereotype of the depraved ,lubricious Negro.
Wells made an enormous contribution to the ,modern civil rights struggle he impact was felt and her arousal of international attention helped in the process of the decline of lynching.
BY 1985 Booker T. Washington emerged giving his famous Atlanta compromise speech which crystallized the tread towards accommodation, he urged blacks to abandon agitation and for new settlement was proposed between the races a settlement of accommodation. Booker T .Washington was a living refutation of White Americas degrading image of the black man. His unflagging efforts to mend the rift between the black man and the white earned a reputation as a statesman as well as an education and by the time of his death in 1915 he was the most powerful black leader in America.
Washington preached the ideology of economic cooperation and offered two concessions .The first was the admission that radical reconstruction had been a mistake believing that blacks had started from the top instead of at the bottom and had devoted too much energy to politics neglecting the skills of habit and industry. The second concession to white assurance was the fact that blacks were not looking for social equality and many white saw this an endorsement to racial segregation..
Though challenged and critised Washington put forth a positive program for economic cooperation .He urged blacks to stay in the south concentrate on working hard rather than agitating for their rights and cultivate friendly relations with the white southerners. Washington’s Atlanta comprise ushered in a new era of race relations but as the 19th century gave way to the 20th century and the position of blacks did not improve he was criticized by a small but influential group that later from the NAACP .They claimed that the Atlanta compromise was not a compromise at all but blacks made all the concessions and whites made nothing. The comprise seemed more to illustrate and emphasize he fact of white supremacy.
According to Fairclough Washington strategies for black process rested upon his Tuskegee Institute and the idea it represented. It arrived in Alabama in 1881 and was administered only by black persons.. In creating a wholly black runned school, Washington was making a powerful statement of racial equality. It was proud symbol of hope to both Black African and West Indians.
Tuskegee represented the philosophy of progress through education. .The Tuskegee Idea was progress through master basic working skills and applying them to the demands of the Southern agricultural economy.llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
Firclough in his fourth chapter describes the rise of the NAACP ,this organisation spearheaded the black struggle for equality and became one of the most influential organisations of reform in American history. On Mat 31st 1909 a array of eminent American gathered in New York city to attend the National Conference on the Negro and they denounced the growing oppression and brutality that blacks were enduring.
The men and women who formed the NAACP were typical of the Progressive era (1980-1917) .The whites within the organisation were affluent old stock American ,protestant, socialist ,they lived in the big cites and many were descended from the abolitionist movement. The blacks were also well educated and of relatively high economic standing. Howe ever fairclough indicates that those who formed the movement differed from the conventional progressives who had little interest in Black America.
The NACCP ideology was a rejection of total racism ,they believed in the equality of all humanity beyond the lines of color. The moved repudiated Booker T. Washington’s claim of advancement through accommodation and their was a call for agitation against oppression. The conference insisted on a strict adherence to the constitution and equality.
Howevre fairclough concludes that the NAACP was and unbalanced and uneasy relationship between whites and blacks .Whites were well represented on the 30 member board but the 3 key positions of prominence were held by whites. This made it uneasy in the eyes of it s critics but it was W.E Bois presence and support of the movement that aided their credibility as a organization geared toward the advancement of Black America.
W.E Bois was a well educated Colored defender of Black equality versed in the arts he was a ardent critic of Booker T. Washington’s accommodation program. .He believed that true emancipation would not coming along through economic striving alone ..Dois idea of the talented tenth as a cultured broadminded leadership ,that would fight for equal rights .His views were in direct opposite to Washington as he belived that no amount of economic wealth could counter the loss of education or the right to vote.
The Niagra movement formed in 1905 was the first collective attempt by Afivcan Americans to demand full citizenship t\rights in the 20th century, howere fairclough saw this movemnt as failing to to be a beckpoon of black protest as it also demonstrated the flaws that accompanies Dubois leadership in the fact that its roots were in the Northern States and was ill trusted byy black southerns.
Firclough attributed the race riot of 1906 which took place in atlantan as an important ,ark in the failure of the Niagra movemnt as it demoralized the altanta leadership and gace Wqashington a platform on which to reaserat his influence in the black community.The failure of the niagra movement allowed for the progession of the NAACP and DuBois as it spokeman.
The Naacp pursued a line of aggesive litigation.Firclugh illustrated the fire of the movement, and the increades support of the movemnrt that was demonstrated n byt thr increase in the number of menm,eber, .In 1916 the membership stood at 8,785 wirth 8 brances spread throughout the north and sout.Firclogh claimed that the death of Booker T.Washington opened up a vaccum that was filled by the NAACP,Bbut this did not mean unity as a number of blacks especially in the south were reluctant to the isea of open aggitaaion.
Firclouges deals with the imact of the First World War on the community of black American as it inspired blacks with hopes that this war would end white supremacy as the civil war had enced slavery..The great was according to Fairc,logh had a number of effects on on Black Americ .The first and was most notable was the great Migration to the Northern States he attributeds this to the ecnomic oppurtunites created by the outbreak of the war,industries that had previously excluded blacks ,opened their doors to them during the great war .
Firclough maked the important point that though Ecnomic oppoutunity may have been a pull ffator in this migration politics played and influential role as he attributes thoiis to the fact of decades of oppession in the Southern Staes.
He also notes that the war present a renewed effort at aggiatation,due to the racial segration in the military .This led to a more miltant attides as the blacks became more resentful to racial dicrimation at home so were the whites in their determination to blackes repressed.The migration resulted in a vicious blash by white America as they saw the black movement as a threat to their ecnomic security.Om July 2nd 1917 in Houston ,a brtual race riot insued that left 40 blacks dead and 8 whiteds dead, this illustrated the intensity of the tension in the migration process.
There was clear miltary segration Fairclough draws referance to the fact that 80% of the blacks were assigned to labour battalions and comprised of 1/3 of the armys pick and shovel workers.He attributes this to the miltance in america on their return the bitterness of their discrimantion changed the poltical landscape and transformed black aspirations /This miltancy was captured by Jamican born Marcus Garvey leader and founder of the Unia The Universal Negro Improvement Association.The powers of DuBois and Garvey helped to transalated black aggitation internat an international affir.
In the post world war senarion the NAACP began to gro w I the southern states The militancy manifested itself in the formation of labour unions and organized protest.The climate of the period after the great war was tense.The blacklash was even tenser Firclough describes the read summer of 1919 to emphasis this point in the racial tension within society. As it expolded in violence and lychying to both north and south.During this period as well the Interracial Cooperation committee was forded to end racil viloence and factilate corporation.
The sisthe chapter entiled Maarcus Grvey and the UniA reflects on the creation of a mass movement, the first of it kind intergrating black america.It was a nationalist movement of internation dimensions.Gverynism was buit upon the idea of th esuperiotry of the black race dismissing notions of black inferorty.Garvey a firery orator was able to entrall mass support for the concept of africa for the africans. Firclough accounts the rapidity of the rise of gaverynism to the death of booker t washington and the UNIA ablity to showcase the strenght of an all black organisation ,as the NAACP had failed because of it white mebership.
Grvey embraced the idea of Racial Segreatiom am advocated sepreatism ,he advocated racial purity and he asdvocated the accomodationist philsophy of washington.this in may wasys discredited his legitmacy, the failur e of the black strline and the Libya movemet all helped in the disintergration of the movemnt of garveyism.He also attibutes the changing direction of the garvey philosophy as one of the major reasons for the failure of the moveme,the most erronous action on the part of Garevey agcording to Firclugh was the fac tthat he admitted to holding secret talks in Altand with the imperial wizard of the Kuklux Klan this was viewd as an act of betrayal by the black community to the idea of black nationalism. This new program adopted by the garvey movement was attacked with a vengence.And anti garvey movemeny was lauched comprised of memeeberso f the NAACP nad other promibnate ofFICAL.The y atteepted to discredit aGarvey character and 1927 he was deprted to Jamica on the basis of Mail Fraud. Firclough makes pains to prtroy the movement aas a mass movement of internation propotions demostrating the fact that the movement was sprending throughout the world and the British empires concern with the movement as they viewd it as a threat to the status quo within their own therritioes.
Chapter 7 the radical thirties attempts to capture the radicalism that sweep acrooss america during the great deperession that country face in the 1930's. The chapter caputres the sprit of the Swellinf tensions and the rise of cmmunist as an avenue for social and ecnomic redress.Firclough attributes he rise of the Communism as a ideology of change to the Scottsboro affair he usess this a means of illustrating the rise of the party as a deliverer of justice and their abilty to fight for a cause and their willingness to take on the cause of the black poupaltion.He also indicated the growing faction between the NAACP nad the Comminust party during this period again indicating the spilt in the movemet of the black population.He vies the communist party as being an avenue of change especially when both white and black america where surfferinfg immense ecnomic harsip.He puts forth the view that the NAAACP was a inadequate organisation during this period of ecnomi didtress as they failed to relaise the climate of the nation and their emaphasis of civil rights created a vaccume that the communist was able to fill with their advocation of bettertin the ecnomic conditions of the working class.
The 1930's saw mass action on the part of blacks through labour unions.The most powerful exaample according to Fairclough was the autnomous action taken by the Brotherhood of sleeping car porters.In 1935 the BSCP signed a contract with the pullman company who were veryantiunion , gaining substantial perkes for their member.Under the leadership of Phillip Randolph the BSCP was able to make of one of the most triuph conclusions to one of the longest negoitating preocess and in the this action they gained one of the most imporatanr regoniation in the Ameriacn Labour Movment they were the first Black organisation to gain recognition to by the American Labour Movemt.Its victory embodied a contradiction between means and ends and bedivilled the struggle for equality.
The formation of the NaTIONA Negro Congress and thiere attempted Mass March on Washington inn 1941 alowed for the excutive order 8802 which allowed for theelimation of discrimation of blacks in defense industires and government agencies.The order was an affermertive commitment to racial equaltiy by the government of the united States.
Hoever by 1945 the radicalism associated with the communist ideology had run it course as the coldwar action characterized by the Mc Catheism commemece.Therefore elimating the commist Ideology as an alternative to change .
Chapter 8 raises the issue of the black sittion in the south between the period 1919-1942,
The struggle for racial equality can be chronicled in termes of aggitation and protest ,courtroom confrontation and non violent progress.In the segregated south during the heyday of white supremact which lasted until about 1950 balcks rarely challed whites wtithout undiscriamated brutality as a reaction.But fairclough decribes methods in which blacks adopted to ensure their survival within the confines of white suprmacy.
He decribes that their freedom was to organize under the the banner of Racial Unplift .Behind the walls of segreations ,they built parallell insitutions,Racial Uplifement represented one step forward but two steps backward, as they adopted tactics of indirection ,they worked for shortime improvement within their seperated world.
Women played and imporatat role in bridging the clour lines,viewed as less threatening than men they were able to cordinate with white women attempt to instruct reform.At a specail meeting in mephis in 1920 the women’s arm of the Commision on interracial cooperation and the women’s missionary council of ther \e Methodist church made a gumeue landmark in the interracial movement.It represented the idea of coporation didpite the fact that the meeting failed to organize any program it represeated n ideal. In 1930 a group of 26 women intiated the most significant campaign against racial discrimation.Thr associating of southern Women for the Prevention of Lyching and by 1941 this women wre able to secure 1,355 pledges by white policemen and sheriffs to prrtect the rights of prisoners.
Friclough puts forth the view that interracial cooperative movements had always been a poor subsitute for political action , as it was viewd a an istiution geared toward presavong the status quo rather than changing it.He claims that the CIC necciatd in oerder to appease southern whites ,which was a basic contradiction at the heart of the interracial co-opereration movement.
Education ,revealed the ambiuties of thee campaign for better schools .The education system was a battle for blacks, t\black southerners sinc ethe ccommerce of the rconstruction program depended on white philanthropy to fund many of their insiutions.But dispite the raise and improvement in edication it was scarified at the cost of greater bureaucratic control by southern whites.
However education was seen as having the long range effect of norishing and strenghting the Negro protest,Black schools and colledges encouraged political awarness by teaching literacy.Education inspired self worth ,ambition and a disire for liberation .
In chapter 9 “The Naaco’s challege to white supremacy,1935-45 ,fairclough attemptd to put forth the claim that even in the deep south during the zenith of white supremacy ,some black southerns protestes agaist Jim croow..There was sublte resistance by indirect means and those who agitated openly to racial discrimination.
In this chapter he attributes the rise of the early civil rights movement to the growth of the NAACP as a mass organization.Many of the NAACP critics viewed the oranisation as comprising of mainly upper and middle class men and women who were not intouch with the masses but fairclough skillfull articles that this was nesscarry as the men and women who led this organization had to be economically independent of whites in order to perpetuate the cause of the movement .the rise of the NAACP was attributed to the gowth in labour unions and their integrating into the NAACP ,by 1946 ther was pover 500,000 many of whom had already participated in openaggitation under their respective unions.
Firclough empoles the point that the second world war bought with it employment, and turned the pacifc coast into an economic colossus. And again black americ pressed their claim of eual citezenship .But the attiudes of white amaerica wre strigent\.The second wwaorld war bought jobs but noe equality.The exectutive order of 1941 was vwed as the greatest victory since the civ emancipation howere the formation of the Fir Empoluymnet Practice Committee that was issued under the oder was sabotaged by the attiude of racial America,demonstrating that racial tension were paramount diuing the 1940’s .This tesion according to fairclough was not limited to empoymnt pratices and industries only .It extended to the military as well,while America portrayed the image odf equality during the War it remained highly divided ,this resulted in tesion and violence within the military ranks.An issue which escalated uring the war was the segreation issue,and according to Firclough the issue loomed large under wartime pressure and the incident of violence was pervasive.
The fight to end their disenfranchisement in the south proved to be the most important stuggle in the black fight against inequality., the new deal of the 1930’s demonstrated to the black population the neccisity of the right to vote. During World war teo ,the campaighn to vote paralled the expolsive gorth of the NAACP ,as black civic leagues agitated for and end to dienfranchisement of the black population.
The NACCP ha d alwayed litgation as a mechanism of redress against the inquality in American society.He attribute what was demed as the second emacipation of the black pouplation to the work of chales.h.houston ans thurgood marshall and their litgaion proceedings against racial equality.The NAACP were careful not to attack the consitutionality of segration because of the consequence of lossing as it might reaffirm the plesyv.ferguson sperate but equal precident.But they atempted to attack the Jim Crow at the most vulnerable poin that was public education but comparing the state of white schol to hos eof black the NAACP was able to attack the inequalites in public education. The landmark litigation of smith v alright in 1941 ruled that white primacy consitued illegal discrimation this resulted in a mass of black registration to the pols but the white attitude prevailed and it was not until another 20 years that black Southerners would secure their rights to vote.
Chpter 10entiled One step fowar two steps back, puts for the the view that ib the period after the first worls war there was a steady advance for black southers.They beniffitted frod from improvements in education as well as after the Smith vAllright case theyere was an increase in voter registraation. By 1952 the electorate in the south consisted of 1 million black voters.He claims that after 1950 ,economic,political and ideologiacl changes were rordering southern society and eroding the foundation of white domination.Ecnomiccaly the south was being transformend in industrail,ubran center which ganwed at hat system of equality he also clims that they was a change in the realm of thoughy as white suprmacy had become and anachroism.
He put forht the vie that the cold was had forded the ferderal government to confront rasin as a national issue,and president truman and the supreme court gradually set in place a new national policy.As the president set up acommitee on civil rights and the supremen court made thae landmark ruling of the Broene v.Board of education case. On may 19,1954 the supremen court ruled hat in the field of public education ,the doctrine of seoerate bbut equal has no place.This se a precnet for and intergration process in the education system.But in realty the NAACP who negotioned this victory aginst white supremacy realised that his was a fight to be implements.The whites organised themselves in Citizen's Coucils to reject the civil rights movement .The result was that schols remained sperated..Hoereve r the broen decision was a lnadmark in the civil rights movemnt it destroyeed the legal basis for seperation.
Chaoter 11 decribes the non vilent rebellion 1955-60 and it impac on the cvil rights movement.He prescribes the Montogomery Bus boycott of 155-1956 as the most unified attempted at solidarity,it represent the will of the masses to reject the insitution of segregation.The boycoot according to Firclough was a logical extension of the delevloping black freedom stuggle and a histrorical break through.The protest called fort the courteous tratment of black passeger,the elination of the back to resr seating for clourd persons and the empolyment of black bus drivers on routes that went through predominatrely balack neigh bour hoods. The balck community revealed tremendous resilance in th eboycott.The Mia tend took a decision to challege the segregation laws in court. And in 1956 it was ruled that city state ansbus segration laws were on consitution and on 20th June 1956 when the order became effective black passenger sat where they wanted.The Montogomery bus boycott was a physicologiacall turning point in the battle for civil rights.
Martin Luther King Jr. has rose to the relms of the MIA movemt during the boycott and his presence culticvate a new union between balck churches and the civil rights movemnt. The Southern christian leadership confernace filled he vaccum of the NAACP wher had cesed all operations in labama after the Boycitt incident, they were and indegoeus southern movment and it empahsis and base was the balck church.The basic idean was simple the SCLC would promote mass action throughout the south and atack segregation and dienfrenachisement across the south.
Thstendent sit in of the 1960's represented a new phase in the civil rights movement according to fairclough.It developed as a regional bases activity and were more confrontational with segrgration. Students physically challenged the Jim crow using their bodies I the way of segreation.the sit in movement mae a massive dent in the stucutre of segreagtion.In the Deep south ,crushed by violence and arrest they failed to intergrate the counters.But in the upper south and in the rim south states of Florida and Texas they proved effective.The disruption aused by the sit ins and the consumer effects of boycotts hurt the dime of the stores ans their resistance dwindleeed and by Marcg 19 ,1960 Sna Antonio Texas became the first city to sisintergrate their lunch counters, Nashville did so in May and by the end of 1960 over 80 cities and towns agreed to serve balcks.
On April 15-17 ,1960 thr Student Non Viloent cordinating conmitte was forned (SNCC)Like the SCLC ,SNCC belived that comfrontation and direct action not ligation was the best way forward for the civil rihghts movement. The King as leader of the SCLC had established himself as the black leader of the south and the SNCC had established itself as the cutting edge of the civil rights movemnt.
Chapter 12 decribes the civil rights movement during the years 1960 to 63 ,faircloughconcentrates on the Kenenedy's adminstration program towars black, the freedom rides of the ealry 60's and the SNCC voter registration campaign in souther missipi which was viewd as the hel of white suprmacy. Acording to fairclough white supremacy as a formal system collapsed with suddenness between 1960 and 1965 that it vied by many that the civil rights movement was pushing aginst a an open dorr,yet before 1963 it appeared that the civil rights movement was not going aways in the face f white suprmacy.
Acoording to Firclough the kenedy adminstratiomnto cicl rights program was modest I scope.It relied upon exective action to comabat racil discrimnation within the federal government .
With respect to the freedom rides of 1961 he puts forth the view that that it was the clearest demostration that the civil rights movement could reap huge dividends by dilberately envoking white vilolence.alanuched by the congress on racial equality on May 4ht 1961,the freedom rides challaged segreatio in interstate travel..The action of the freedom riders aroused mass oposition by with citizary as well as law enforment officals, but the inablity of the federal government to stop the freedom riders forced the kennedy admistraion to act against it will on the issue. By instructing te Justice deparrment to pro the Interstate Commerece Commision to ban the segreation and discrimation in interstate travel.
The missipi voter program represented a direct challage to white power . and became and intensive program of the entire civil rights movement.Because of the fact that the state had the largest propotiobns of blalacks to whites but still has the smallest balck electoral list,proved that their was an extremmelly white supremist attide in the country.The SNCC concentrated their efforts in this area and thiey viewed that the kennedy adminstratin had a moral obligation to take action and play a active role, because of the seeting up of a federal funded Voter Education Commitede in 19622..But acording to fairclough the stark relaties of poltical power was revelaed with the goverments refusal to aid agist the discrimanation of the state.
Faiclough also speaks about the Albany movemet ,which attacked every facet ogf racial disrimantion ,demanding fasir employment ans an end to police brutality. And the desegregation of buses and the public areas..Its broard menber shp,militnt tactics ,comprehensive goals and alliance of local and outside leadeship made the movemt the first of its kind,and it profoundly influence the subsequent development of the civil rights movement. T.the movement stumble aalong it was and siabused the Civil Rights Movement ot its more romatic notions about nonviolence.The movement was faced by federal refusal to intervene anf the city of albany was granted and injuction aginst all demostrators.
In Chapter 13 fairclought deals with 3 major incidents in black history that helped in changing the landscape of the civl rights movemnt .The first is the brimingham campaig against segreation,between apirl 3rd and may 8 th 1963 an attacke was lancehed at the segranationsit policieces of the state. ,protest and mass meetings were hel and Martin Luther King as well as 3,300 persons went to jail.On 10th march an agreement was signed by the city buisness leader with the promise of segragting the stores.Many of the leaders were not staisfies with this move but Birmaingham as one of the segreated cities in the south ,a little desergration amount to a lot.And the civil rights movemnt knew that if Birminham faltered so to would other cities .In a three week period of the birminghnam campaign ,campaigns spread scross many cities and the justice deparment recorded that 143 citis had agredd to some for of integraton.According to Fariclough Birmingham and its shock waves shattered that sense of normality and it banished the illuison that Southern balcks wer edoclie and apathetic and that tey would put up with segrgation indefinately.
