How relevant is the orthodox theory in understanding the origins of the Cold War?

University Degree Historical and Philosophical studies

At the end of the Second World War two countries emerged as respective superpowers. Allies during the war the United States of America and Russia were less devastated than many of the other countries involved. The Russians had driven back and defeated the Nazis on the eastern front, and the Americans had eventually defeated the Japanese by dropping the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima in 1945.

Although Russia and the US had been allies during the war ideologically and politically the countries were polar differences. They were united in the common goal of defeating Fascism in the form of Nazi Germany but it was apparent that this was the only link between the two countries. Even before the end of the Second World War, differences and tension between the two countries emerged as discussions and negotiations turned to the topic of the post war world. Both countries had strong beliefs as to how the world should be run economically and politically, the explanations of which were entrenched into their political ideologies. The US championed the need for free trade, liberal capitalism and liberal democratic political systems, especially in western and eastern European countries. They had the so-called “open door policy”. They also saw Soviet Communism as a threat to the destabilised world as it had a historical policy of expansionism. The Communist Regime in Russia under the strong hand of Stalin saw American policy after the war as a threat to Russian national security. American policy had a long history of being anti-communism. Russia believed that the US wanted to encircle their country with capitalism thus weakening the Russian Communist state.

A multitude of decisions, events and attitudes led to the cold war; there is not an exact starting point or one particular cause. There are three major theories on the origins of the Cold War; each presents a different view on why and what caused the Cold War. In the course of this essay I am going to explain the “Orthodox Theory” of the Cold War and examine its relevancy in explaining the origins of the war. I am also going to highlight the opposing “Revisionist Theory” and examine the addition of the “Post-Revisionist Theory” and how their relevance to explaining the origins of the Cold War.

“The Orthodox American view, as originally set forth by the American government and reaffirmed…by most American scholars, has been that the Cold War was the brave and essential response of free men to communist aggression”

This is a preview of the whole essay

The Orthodox Theory of the origins of the Cold War was the predominately American view that the policies of Communist Russia posed a threat to the national security and national interests of the United States. This view was presented by George Kennan a US Ambassador to Russia during the Second World War. In 1946 he wrote a telegram outlining the problems or threats posed by the Soviet Union. Kennan argued that the fundamental roots of Communism were expansionist by nature and supported the world’s proletariat to revolt against class suppression. The telegram warned that although Communist Russia did not realistically pose a military threat it did pose an “ideological-political threat” to Western Europe and Japan as the countries had been de-stabilized by war and were vulnerable to

“pressure and enticements of communist minorities in their midst”

If Stalin took control of any of the major the major western states in Europe or Japan it would….

“be a blow to our (American) national security, fully as serious as would have been a German victory that had just ended”

The United States had the opinion that the totalitarian regime of Stalin’s Communist Russia was comparable to that of Nazi Fascism. They compared the expansionism of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe to the pattern of adopted by Hitler in the 1930’s. The US also had an “Open Door” Policy. They believed that the only way to avoid world war again and gain political stability was through economic success. Economic success could be achieved through applying the properties of capitalism, which included the free market. Therefore the US needed to encourage the spread of capitalism and liberal democracy on a global scale. Communist expansionism and the encouragement of global revolt seemed to pose a threat to American ideology and the American ideal of a world that was economically and politically stable and peaceful. The US had to therefore protect against Communist expansionism in Eastern Europe not only for ideological reasons but also for their national security.

“If the West turned its back on Eastern Europe, the higher the probability, in their view (American officials), was that the Russians would use their security zone, not just for defensive purposes, but as springboard from which to mount an attack on Western Europe, now shattered by war, a vacuum of power awaiting its master”

There was the general consensus in America that if Russia expanded into Western Europe they would be in a position to attack the United States. Communism appeared to be naturally hostile, compromise and co-operation between Communist Russia and the United States only took place when it was deemed necessary (for example at Yalta and Potsdam).

The points I have made above highlight the position of the United States, that Russia and its communist regime, was the main aggressor and cause of the Cold War. The orthodox theory is very relevant when explaining the origins of the Cold War. It was prevalent in much of the United States foreign policy at the time. It shaped how the United States dealt with the Soviet Union and many events that happened during the Cold War period. However there does seem to be some flaws in the theory, especially when considering the “threat” that the Soviet Union posed. The Soviet Union did not come out of the Second World unscathed. The country had lost 25 million lives in the war and its military had been weakened by war. Statistics show that the Soviet Union was in no military position to attack the United States in any way. It seems that the threat was over exaggerated. In an article in 1987 George Kennan reflected that Russia’s threat was political-ideological. This appears to undermine some of the major points of the Orthodox theory.

The Orthodox theory puts forward what the United States, at the time, thought were the origins of the Cold War. There are however other theories that explain the origins of the Cold War, the other two main theories are, as I mentioned above, the Revisionist Theory and the Post-Revisionist Theory.

The Revisionist Theory opposes the Orthodox theory. Revisionist theory does not explain the origins of the Cold War as the fault of Russia, but the result of American policy and attitudes after World War two. The United States had come out of the war as a formidable power on the world stage.

“It was the decision of the United States to employ its new and awesome power in keeping with the traditional Open Door Policy which crystallized the Cold War.”

American policy especially the open door policy and the idea that the US had nuclear supremacy gave Russia no choice but to defend its borders and respond in the ways they did.

“As Revisionists see it….American policy-or rather the resumption by Truman of the pre-Roosevelt policy of insensate anti-communism-left Moscow no alternative but to take measures in defense of its own borders. The result was the Cold War.”

The United States had its own course of aggression encouraging self-determination in Eastern Europe and establishing democratic and capitalist states around the borders of Russia. By encircling Russia with democratic-capitalist states and containing Communism, the United States were applying un necessary Pressure and threatening to crush Russia’s communism regime by destroying its interests in eastern Europe.

“The United States deliberately abandoned the wartime policy of collaboration and, exhilarated by the possession of the atomic bomb, undertook am course of aggression of its own designed to expel all Russian influence from Eastern Europe and to establish democratic-capitalist states at the very border of the Soviet Union.”

The Revisionist theory challenged the status-quo of the Orthodox theory. It was relevant as it challenged the dominant theory that Russia was to blame for the cold war. It questioned whether the origins of the Cold War were merely acts of Russian aggression thus opening other possibilities. The theory called into question whether it was right for the United States to make the assumption that they were ideologically, militarily and politically superior to Russia. The theory also highlighted that American policies and actions had an effect on Russia and that the origins of the Cold War were not just simply the United States responding to Russia’s actions.

Post-revisionist theory examines both of the theories I have outlined above, but the conclusions that it draws are more equal and balanced. Both countries contributed to the origins of the Cold War. The Orthodox theory disregards Russia’s need for security as well as America’s and the Revisionist theory ignores Russian behaviour that led to shifts in American policy. Post-revisionist theory examines both of the preceding theories and offers a more balanced conclusion of events. Post-revisionism is

“a new consensus which draws from both traditional (orthodox) and revisionist interpretations to present a more balanced explanation of the beginning of the cold war”

Post-revisionist theory outlines that the origins of the Cold War were based on misconceptions, mistrust, misunderstandings and a lack of communication between the United States and Russia. Both countries lacked knowledge on the other.

The Orthodox theory is relevant in explaining the origins of the Cold War, but I would say that its relevancy was limited as it only gives a one-sided view of the reasons behind the war.

All three theories that I have outlined have relevancy in explaining the origins of the Cold War. However it seems that the Orthodox and Revisionist theories are too one sided, they do not consider all angles of events and attitudes and therefore place the blame for the Cold War firmly with one country. I think that this was an unrealistic view; Arthur Schlesinger sums this up well….

“In retrospect, it is impossible to see the Cold War as a case of American aggression and Russian response, it is also hard to see it as a pure case of Russian aggression and American response.”

I am more inclined to think that the Post Revisionist theory provides a more accurate view on the origins of the Cold War, as it does not seek to blame either the United States or Russia. It instead looks at both sides and concludes that other factors, for example, misunderstandings and mistrust caused the Cold War.

Bibliography.

Kennan, G. “The Sources of Soviet Conduct” in “Foreign Affairs” vol.25 no.4 1987

Lafeber, W. “America, Russia and the Cold War, 1945 to 2000” (McGraw Hill, 2001)

Schlesinger, A. “Origins of the Cold War” in “Foreign Affairs” 46 October, 1967

Williams, W.A. “The Tragedy of American Diplomacy” (Delta, 1972)

Schlesinger, A. “Origins of the Cold War! Foreign Affairs 1967

Kennan, G. “The Sources of Soviet Conduct” Foreign Affairs vol.25 no.4 1987

Lafeber, W. “America, Russia and the Cold War, 1945 to 2000” p30

Schlesinger, A. “Origins of the Cold War” Foreign Affairs 1967 p24

6.Schlesinger, A. “Origins of the Cold War” Foreign Affairs 1967 p24

Schlesinger, A. “Origins of the Cold War” Foreign Affairs 1967 p24

Walker, S.J cited in Gaddis, J.L “The emerging Post-Revisionist Synthesis on the Origins of the Cold War” Diplomatic History vol.7,no.3, Summer 1983