Films which are considered science fiction are arguably structured differently and in a more complex fashion. The spectrum and expectations are so broad for character, action, setting, period, whether it be past, present or future, that it is no wonder that the genre has been sectioned off into hybrid or sub genres over the years, such as sci fi Horror, Alien (1979) sci fi Action adventure, Escape from New York (1981) sci fi Western, Outland (1981) and sci fi Family Entertainment, E.T (1982). It does seem that it has become increasingly more difficult to clearly “pin” down a science fiction text, as the popular genre constantly reinvents itself and at times displays, an archetypal generic framework that on the surface might look like it belongs to another genre, such as Frankenstein (1931) which many people would feel comfortable regarding as Horror. Even though the science and technology that Dr Frankenstein invents to create his monster is clearly fictional.
‘It has often been noted, it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish between Horror and Science Fiction. Films like Frankenstein (1931), The Thing (1982) and The Hound of the Baskervilles (1939) in their own ways testify to the propensity for multiplicity and overlap among and between these genres in Hollywood. It is there fore hardly surprising that water tight definitions of science fiction and horror are hard to come by.’ (Cook & Bernink , 1999, p 191).
To effectively question Kuhns statement, with reference to the science fiction genre we must at least try to establish key conventions which can be applied across the board to this category of films, taking into account both conventional or classic texts and hybrid films. Richard Hodgen’s suggests that ‘What makes Science Fiction involves extrapolated or fictions use of scientific possibilities, or it may be simply fiction that takes place in future or introduces some radical assumptions about the present or past.’ (Cook & Bennink, 1999, p 191). This seems a fair enough interpretation of science fiction, although again if taken word for word it could also apply to texts which belong to other genres, for example James Bond films often “involve fictitious use of scientific possibilities” in regards to his gadgets. Also the villains layer which is more times than not situated in a realistically speaking impossible geographical location, in a hollowed out volcano, which doubles as a space rocket launch centre. Does that mean that the James Bond franchise could be classed as science fiction? Even if the films do borrow certain elements from this genre to label them as science fiction would be “reading against the grain.” The films lend themselves firstly to the spy, espionage genre and now, more recently to the action adventure genre more than anything else, another example of how a genre evolves. They arguably fit into a genre of “Bond Films” all by themselves, fulfilling a whole unique set of audience expectations in terms of iconography, the introduction or use of a new technologically advanced “Bond Gadgets” being one. It may be the case that when trying to categorise certain texts we may have to rely on common sense rather than take Hodgens’s definition as gospel. Annette Kuhn’s, recognises the problem of demarcation between genres herself ‘One of the problems here must be the very difficulty of arriving at a critical definition of science fiction cinema as a genre, even if it is readily recognizable in practise’ (Kuhns, 1996, p 1) she goes on suggest that ‘more importantly than what film genre is, is the question of what in cultural terms, it does-Its cultural Instrumentality.’ (Kuhns, 1996, p 1).
Science fiction stories were born from adventure stories and ‘tales of science and of the future’, these stories were associated with the likes of Jules Verne in a literary sense and dominated the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, fuelled by a second industrial revolution and a new machine age. The stories became increasingly popular and coincided with the invention of film, itself a great technological invention. It therefore seemed an obvious medium in which to present these futurist narratives. The pioneering science fiction film Le Voyage Dans La Lune ( A Trip To the Moon) (1902), utilised many of the science fiction motifs and cinematic language we are still used to today, including the projectile shaped space rocket. The 14-minute film used very inventive film techniques, trick photography and superimposed images, fantastic special effects for the time and set the stage for what audiences still expect from this genre. Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927) was made after the First World War and showed the social condition of Europe. The film set in the future shows the consequences of technology gone mad and a repressed society of workers who were forced to live underground. It featured an evil scientist a futuristic society and a female robot. It proved to be extremely influential, later providing inspiration for countless other sci fi films, including Star Wars (1977). The silent film set in the year 2000 depicted a semi apocalyptic future and perhaps expressed a social anxiety of what the future maybe after witnessing the horrors of the Great War. Rumour has it that it was one of Adolf Hitler’s favourite films, perhaps appealing due to narratives and themes which matched or even influenced his own beliefs. If this were anywhere near the truth we can start to see how Kuhn’s statement can be applied maybe not just in reflecting social ideologies but in influencing them also. This is of course a bold statement but other examples of earlier science fiction films, have been in a sense prophetical in their predictions of the future. Things to come (1936) showed audiences a hundred years of future events, a society, crippled by War and plague before the survivors of the apocalypse begin to rebuild civilization through advanced technology. Produced three years prior to Hitler’s invasion of Poland in 1939, the movie predicts the start of WWII in 1940, only a year later than real life. It also predicts the Second World War would be fought on land, sea and air. In addition, it predicts the use of London's underground as a giant air raid shelter’. (). Coincidence plays a large factor when science fiction becomes science fact and it is not surprising that out of so many different perceptions of the future represented within this genre, one or two come close to the truth. It’s fair to say that that these texts based on social beliefs of the time, can make educated intelligent assumptions on what the future might have in store. Science fiction has an advantage over other genres in being able to express or mirror social anxieties of the time. The future is a blank screen in which many different visions can be projected and depending on the current state of affairs within, more times than not an American society. These visions can range from being dystopian with oppressive governments and dominating corporations Code 46 (2003) to the more extreme catastrophic, post nuclear scenarios, Planet of the apes (1968) and The Terminator (1983). Code 46 is a good example of a recent text that mirrors our preoccupations about the increasingly rapid advance of cloning and the worrying issues of how certain groups within society are becoming more and more accepting. This is a one of the key themes that many genre theorists believe is present when identifying science fiction, ‘the conflict between science and technology on one hand and human nature on the other’ (kuhn, 1996, p 5). The fact that this genre can use the future as a blank canvass to paint all sorts of possible outcomes, can be used in not only reflecting cultural fears, but also in answering questions and playing out realistic narratives if current “issues” within our present are not re addressed. Code 46 is set in a not to distant future, where the cloning of human beings is not just accepted, it has become part of the norm. This leads to huge population problems, were people are segregated, those who live in the cities and those who have to inhabit shanty towns outside the boarders, simply because of over population. This area of the film possibly reflects immigration concerns the western world faces at the moment, although a direct reference is never made. Some of the issues addressed within the context of the film may well be a repressed representation, which is intended to work on a subconscious level. In many ways the film asks the audience to re evaluate the society we live in. The issue of cloning is a dominant theme within the narrative, and the acceptance of this practise has escalated to the point were unintentional incest through partners can be a common risk. The Code 46 law is put into force to stop the conception of a child between related partners. The themes are quite relevant to our sociological state at present, as we are on the verge of a technological scientific revolution. To a certain extent it acts as a moral warning and does ask the audience whether our not we have the right to play God and experiment with Mother Nature at all. In terms of Kuhn’s statement this future text powerfully and obviously mirrors our present, although other examples which on the surface may deal with similar themes do not seem to be as culturally relevant, if at all. Alien Resurrection (1997) another modern popular science fiction text, includes the practise of human cloning within the narrative. Unfortunately the problem with “Genre Theory” is that it caters not only for audiences needs but is also a marketing tool used by the film industry. This film was part of a very successful franchise and although the previous Alien films especially the original, which is now, considered the renaissance of the science fiction genre, offered audiences intellectual food for thought, It seems the case that this film was very much a product to capitalise on an already established fan based audience, the subject of cloning only bought about as a plot line to reintroduce the central character back into the story. The film catered for the audiences needs and met their expectations, with the character of Ripley, actress Sigourney weaver being present, however it would be a challenging task to even build a convincing argument that Kuhn’s theory readily applies, even though Alien Resurrection is in fact a popular Science fiction generic text, utilising all the conventions, style, iconography and cinematic language we might expect. It might refract some of our present social trends and attitudes but it certainly doesn’t clearly reflect any. Tom Ryall’s triangle model, offers a give and take relationship between the audience, artist and text. The industry works in collaboration with audience needs to produce generic texts. The model or theory is meant to be unbiased, not giving preference to any one party, although possibly the triangular relationship is not so rigid, but sometimes floats closer to one of the circles, the industry in this case. Robert Warshow suggests of genre films ‘that any representation to the real facts of whatever the situation it presents to describe is only of secondary importance and does not determine the aesthetic force’( Warshow, 1970) The fact that Alien Resurrection was a sequel to an already established framework, within a genre framework makes Warshows theory even more applicable. He goes on to say ‘It is only in an ultimate sense that the type appeals to its audience’s experience of reality, much more immediately, it appeals to previous experience of the type itself: It creates its own field of reference’. In this particular case the field of reference being the other Alien instalments. It seems to be the case that Alien Resurrection was made not because there was necessarily a social need for the film but because a niche in the market guaranteed financial success. This seems to be the case with many sci fi sequels, the studios feel a need to capitalize on the success of the originals and the original social themes become less important and give way to what is perceived as audience’s overly high expectations. Predator 2 (1990) , Terminator 3 (2003) and Escape from L.A (1996) are some more examples where any form of social representation plays second best to the industries need to cash in, but unable to introduce any new significant themes, which haven’t already been address in the originals.
‘The economic organisation of the film Industry along the lines of commodity productions is cited as the reason for the existence of genres themselves. As the market for entertainment is notoriously difficult to predict and control, profit is dependant on the successful identification and capture of a particular audience’ (Cook & Bernink, 1999, p 141)
The above statement seems even more relevant when taking into account sequels or franchise texts.
Perhaps as Warshow suggests that only in an ultimate sense can genre appeal to our reality. To explore this we need to look at not only a collection of similar generic texts, but a collection that were all made in a similar period of history. From this we may be able to establish a pattern of themes and in turn be able to understand how they reflect a particular social and cultural ideology of that time frame. If we look at 1950’s Hollywood Science fiction, it is believed that Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) and The Thing from another World (1951) was an analogy of hysterical American fears over the Cold War and the threat of a communist invasion, the analogy being the threat of undetectable aliens with ulterior motives hiding and cultivating within American society. Popular science fiction films of the late 60’s and 70’s, concentrated on apocalyptic themes possibly due to the harsh realities of the Vietnam War. The war received uncensored media coverage and images of mass destruction and dead or wounded American soldiers became a common site for society at that time. Anti war protests were on the increase and images of violent confrontations between protesters and the police again became a common image on the news and in the streets. Lucas’s THX-1138 (1969) future world portrayed a totalitarian government ruled society and shows a police ruled state. A possible representation of what was going on at the time. America was being torn apart in light of the war and various groups of society were rebelling against the authorities and there was a clear divide among society. More images of destruction and the fear of a nuclear disaster were the inspiration behind other sci fi films showing a post nuclear apocalyptic vision. Notably the Omega Man (1972) and Planet of the Apes (1968). The latter addressed not only the possible consequences of the after math of a nuclear war, but also showed what a fragile state humanity had become, where an inferior species could rise above and dominant the planet and arguably do a better job, protecting their own from making the same mistake man had made in respect of self annihilation.
The films powerful iconography turned the tables on man, representing him as the beast and one that needs to be controlled. And the famous image of the fallen statue of liberty can only mirror the fears that America could have lost everything it stands for, freedom. This paranoia about the future of the humans was a major element of the plot and the resolution was even bleaker. At this particular time in America it was a representation of a society for a society in upheaval. Within the film there were deeper more hidden themes within the subtext, which could be considered again reflections or more literarily refractions of certain aspects within society, as the issues were not predominately spelled out. Civil rights movements were rife in America during the late sixties and the film dealt with issues of reversed racism against the Anglo Saxon white American, possibly related to the fear of the Black Panther movement and ethnic minority rights in general. There were also themes of male sexual dominance that were clear in the narrative, as the three male astronauts were accompanied by a single woman on their mission with her sole purpose to procreate a new human race. Another representation was of the female lead character, Nova. She was represented as a primitive mute slave like figure, who Taylor chose for his own. Again these underlying sexist themes may have been a reflection of the need to maintain male dominance within a society that was undergoing great change. Concepts of human origin, were also explored within the text in the form of religion vs. evolution in an attempt to establish mans identity again in a time when many people in America had seemingly lost their own and were questioning the values of their great nation. There is no doubt that this apocalyptic text and others of this period were representations of the present social climate, with both conscious and subconscious themes addressed. A year later Easy Rider (1969) was released this text again questioned the key themes of freedom, a loss and a search of identity, issues of race or prejudice and hostile environments our protagonists encountered on their journey. many critics argue that the end, the random killing of the two protagonists symbolised the death of America and an imminent apocalypse. With similar iconography, the destruction of the American flag as opposed to the image of the fallen statue of liberty, Easy Rider clearly address many of the same themes presented within Planet of the Apes , although within a different generic frame work of a Road, Biker movie. Kuhn’s theory of popular generic texts reflecting social trends and attitudes may well be true, although it is also clear that other generic texts of the same period also attempted to reflect the same socio political concerns.
If generic texts act as a social barometer marking significant changes we can see a new wave of science fiction cinema develop around the late 70’s with the beginning of the digital revolution, the popularity of the home computer and the explosion of hi-tech industry and genetic engineering. Science fiction as well as incorporating similar conventions from the past, alien invasions and corporate capitalism and so forth, an underlying techno phobic feel was present in many texts. Alien (1979) and The Terminator (1984) both incorporated narratives where computers or artificial intelligence had become so advanced that they could act independently, often with dehumanized logic. In Alien, the ships computer Mothers, takes decisive action sending the human crew to investigate an unknown life form. It is the catalyst for the rest of the films events, resulting in the loss of human life. The computers seemingly human conspirator turns out to be a cyborg which again is only capable of thinking with the same dehumanized logic. Again it is a reoccurring theme of technology gone horribly wrong, and mans corruption to let it go wrong. We have seen this in science fiction countless times before, but as previously stated it has been reinvented to depict a more computerized revolution rather than an industrial one Metropolis (1927). Both Films depict woman in a different more socially acceptable way than our previous examples, the character of Ripley is both central and shows masculine traits of strength and leadership as does the character of Sarah Conner In The Terminator, referred to within the text as the “mother of the future” The fact that of these protagonist are both woman and out live their male counterparts during the narrative, may be of social relevance again given the period of history in which they were made, to coincide with feminist issues and equal rights, but we also have to take into account that these films as with Blade Runner (1982), also Scott were made by a filmmaker who has carried themes of strong feminine characters across to other genres Thelma and Louise (1991) and G.I Jane ( 1997). It could therefore be apparent that there is an element of authorship theory present. Within Scott’s work as a whole and these apparently new elements of the “futuristic” role of woman present in Alien are not just confined to this genre alone. The existence of genre and auteur theory apparently contradict, although theorist McArthur suggests the possibility of the two benefiting each other. by ‘enabling the director to use its conventions as a kind of short hand enabling him or her to go straight to the heart of the his/her concerns and express them at a formal level through the interplay of genre convention and motif.’ (Cook & Burnink,1999, p143). Although essentially when Scott’s expressive and personal surface is pealed away the film, looks and feels like a traditional science fiction genre film, in terms of semiotic references, costume and lighting. ‘Like Alien, it finally retreats from the implications of its radical critique into filmic clichés created within the Hollywood style in terms of both genre and cinematography and aiming at an audience that is both bound and managed by the Hollywood system of production and distribution, consciously or not, by formidable constraints’( Byers,1996, p 45). Alien quite possibly owes more to its own genre than many critics would care it admit.
In reference to Kuhn’s statement it is hard to whole heartily agree, It is apparent that there are clear examples within this genre that illustrate the preoccupations of the present or past, sometimes more clearly than others. Some are clear reflections and others are slight refractions that need to be analysed in a deeper sense before any relationship between text and society can be made. More uplifting positive texts like E.T (1982) and Cocoon (1985) coexist within the same genre and within the same period as texts which still depict social decay and a hopeless future which lack moral codes Escape from New York (1981), The Running Man (1987). How can the contrasting nature of these two very different groups possibly reflect the same ideologies? Is it simply that a dysfunctional future world has become a convention and an audience expectation of the genre itself? (Escape from New York featured the same icon of the fallen statue of liberty, from Planet of the Apes made more than a decade previous). A supply and demand model between the audience and the industry, even though that being a true reflection of society no longer exists or at least not to the extremes it did in the late 60’s. Alternatively is it that Hollywood realised the profitable nature of the genre and found the need to market it in a more positive light for a more family orientated audience. Close Encounters of The Third Kind (1978) showing alien messiah figures rescuing humanity from itself. The film still addresses similar themes, but attempts to shape our ideologies about the future with optimism instead of gloom. Perhaps Kuhns statement should begin, “Certain, Popular Generic Texts………” as there is a clear differences of themes between the genre texts, largely depending on their target audience. Perhaps we could even consider leaving the word “Generic” out of the statement as it can be seen that many almost identical thematic parallels which hold a great deal of social importance can be seen between Planet of the Apes and Easy Rider, but at the same time the texts bearing no generic connection what so ever. So far the examples looked at have been more or less popular contemporary texts, endorsed by mainstream studios. B-movies and cult films have enjoyed considerable success within the sci fi genre. Deathrace 2000 (1975, although not regarded as a popular classic science fiction film, it still represents a morally decaying society within its future world and narratively structured not dissimilar from The Running Man (1987). Attack of the 50ft woman (1953), even though presented in a spectatorship, male gaze fashion it still refracts issues revolving around feminism during the 1950’s. Many themes work on a subconscious level and may be present even if it is not an active intention of the filmmakers. Representations from film texts in general, regardless of genre may in effect shape our understanding of the world we live in, This process of ideology is then ploughed back into other film texts popular or not, consciously or subconsciously to create some form of social representation to trends and attitudes, a social representation of itself in and for itself. Arguably the science fiction genre, although providing an archetypal frame work, for particular themes to easily function in, doesn’t mean that the themes are specific only to that genre are any less relevant or different from those of another genre and visa versa. As Kuhn herself suggest whilst justifying her statement ‘Genre films refer more obviously to each other than to the social world’ (Kuhn, 1996, p15).
Bibliography
Cook, P (1999). The Cinema Book, BFI Publications
Kuhn, A (1996) Alien Zone: Cultural Theory and Contemporary Science Fiction,
Verso
Rushing, J.H & Frentz, T.S (1995) Projecting The Shadow, University of Chicago Press
Telotte,J.P (1999) A Distant Technology, Science Fiction Film and the Machine Age, Wesleyan University Press
Warshow, R (1970) The Immediate Experience, Class Handout
Filmography
Alien, (Scott 1979)
Behind the Planet of the Apes (Burns 1988)
Code 46 (Winterbottom 2003)
Easy Rider (Hopper, 1969)
Planet of the Apes ( Shaffner 1968)
The Terminator (Cameron 1984)
Web Information
