The government of Kenya during colonial rule enhanced the role of Kiswahili as a lingua franca owing to the rising need to translate government policy from English to local languages. They agreed that vernacular languages were to be used in the first three years of instruction followed by Kiswahili in the fourth and fifth years, and English was placed as the language of higher education (Bobaljik, 1979). As a result of this aspect of educational policy, Kiswahili is gradually replacing ethnic languages. On the other hand, it prepares itself to be swallowed eventually by English, demonstrating the shift and loss of indigenous languages in Kenya.
Colonialism played a major role in determining education policies and language shift in Kenya. Being from Kenya and educated there, I feel that my experience growing up would explain some aspect of language shift and education in Kenya. I am from Samburu, a minority group in Kenya. In this community, the education of girls is not valued, so getting education means that you are cut off from the daily practices of the community, hence a loss of identity. As a result, those people who are educated do not habitually use Samburu language after school which led to the language shift. This shift occurred since the elite in the community stops using their native language, and now uses Kiswahili and English, which are regarded as the languages of prestige.
What reinforces Language choice in Kenya?
On attainment of political independence in 1963 from the British government, Kenya needed to build a national identity in order to enhance national unity. However, not a single indigenous language would have served this purpose without causing controversies amongst other ethnic groups. Therefore, Kiswahili was agreed upon and also was the least controversial choice in that it was neutral, and a majority of Kenyans could speak it (Whiteley, 1977). On the other hand, English was regarded as a prestigious language and was the main language of instruction in Kenyan schools, while Kiswahili was just taught as a subject. Since the adoption of English as a medium of instruction in Kenyan schools, there has been a concern about students’ deterioration of knowledge of their first language (Rhodes, 1974). This observation by Rhodes has caused most parents not to educate their children, as they fear that the language of their ancestors would be lost. In my (Maasai) community for example, almost 50% of children do not go to school because of this kind of belief. For those who go to school they are regarded as half-cast of Maasai culture and western culture. In addition, they are treated in a different way than the rest of the community, for example, they are not involved in making decisions in the traditional rituals, nor are they allowed to be involved in those rituals.
Apart from education, inter-ethnic marriage also has played a role in language shift and maintenance. With this situation, languages with majority speakers may be socially and economically more prestigious than those languages with few speakers. Inter-marriage between these majority speakers with minority speakers will eventually lead to the loss of the minority language with few speakers. This I can tell from my experience when I was back in Kenya. There was an ethnic community called Aasax, which has the least number of speakers and therefore was, considered as economically inferior. Marriage between them and the Maasai was discouraged. However, Maasai men did marry Aasax women while Aasax men could marry Maasai girls in return for doing herdsman’s services. Due to this intermarriage the Aasax language deteriorated, since they were most likely to use Maasai language which was economically more powerful than theirs. Even though, they still use their native language, in the long run Aasax language would eventually fall into non-existence in the lives of the new families. This is a good example of language shift in that the language used by Aasax community is no longer used when they marry from a different ethnic group. It also points inter-marriage and gender relations as key factors in vernacular language shift and loss.
Effects of gender and interethnic marriages on language shift and maintenance.
From my experience, Indigenous languages are most often maintained in family domains. This is evidenced by the traditional role of women in Kenya, especially in Maasai community; whereby they are kept out of inter ethnic interaction at the social level. They therefore had a rare need to study a different or second language. Patriarchy in Kenyan ethnic communities promotes this, since, when women get married they are completely alienated from their father’s home and assimilated in their husbands, communities, where they learn his language and cultural practices. Those who learn the language faster are praised, but those who do not learn it are regarded with suspicion. However, children learn their father’s language naturally when they are raised within the community where the language is spoken. This only happens to those women who live in the villages and did not have a chance to go to school.
Nonetheless, for those who go to school and live in the urban cities, they compromise with Swahili or English. Often the women are discouraged from speaking their first languages at home when married outside their tribes. When they speak their language it is regarded that they gained power over the husbands and that is not encouraged in the patriarchal communities (Hollis, 1971). Men spend little time with their children and may therefore not impart their first language skills to them. As a result children resort to English or Swahili.
On the other hand, whenever a man chooses to speak his wife’s first language his male friends ridicule him, especially when the woman’s language is considered to be more powerful, owing to its higher social status. Whiteley observed that:
A man, who finds that his wife cannot or will not learn his language, will be forced to learn hers or a third language. A Teso man reported sorrowfully that… he spoke to his Luyia wife and children in Luyia since none has taken the trouble to learn Teso (whiteley P. 126, 1974).
The man was sorrowful because by speaking his wife’s first language he seemed to lack the capacity to control the situation.
Urbanization and the rise of a hybrid language
Urbanization intensifies the need for language choice at every linguistic event. As people move to urban places they interact with other tribes and use Kiswahili or English as a means of communication. According to Whiteley (1974), languages in Kenya initially were clearly demarcated in that English was used for official business, Kiswahili for interethnic communication and political unity, while the indigenous languages were used for intra-ethnic communication and for use at home. But with urban migration, the choice of languages shifted to Swahili and English language. As a result of interaction between these many ethnic groups, the youth, developed their own language.
This language is used for identification, given the fact that they cannot identify themselves using their tribal languages because they have already abandoned them. So, since language is the main facet for identification, the youth developed a language of their own, called Sheng, spoken by every young person in Kenya, especially in urban places like Nairobi. In the language research done in Kenya, it has been noted that young people uses Sheng because it mixes native languages with Swahili and English and develops its culture. Samper argues that youth in Kenya uses Sheng distinctly because it cuts across tribal boundaries, but it creates an opposition between the city and the rural areas. He also argues “Sheng makes a cleavage between the young and the old and establishes this relationship as antagonistic and mutually suspicious” (Samper, p. 246, 2002). It has been noted that this language places boundaries as it separates the poor and the rich as well as the well educated among others. Yet, it serves as a club; if one does not speak it, she or he is not part of the youth nation.
Language use at work
In work domains, the language mostly spoken is English, although Swahili is also used. According to Rhodes (1977), the use of Swahili in the office helps to create systematic relationships between the workers of different hierarchical levels. This happens when a staff member is not fluent in English or situation is not appropriate for English. For example, it is considered rude to speak to an old person in English. As a result, many people use Kiswahili.
In my experience, indigenous languages are also used in the offices. In a situation where there is intra-ethnic interaction, their ethnic language is most likely used. In my community, for example, if a young person speaks a non-native language to an older person, it is considered as a lack of respect. This is the same also in some offices where young and old people work together. Even though English is recognized as an official language, indigenous languages are still used even in the offices.
Language use at home
Language used at home is most often the indigenous language. However, due to urbanization and the rising educational level, languages spoken at home has been shifting significantly. According to Bobaljik (1979), a linguist, spouses who share the same first language use it at home, but for those who are from different ethnicities they most likely use Swahili or English. The same has been observed of well educated couples. Therefore, in the home domain all three languages are currently in use. English is the language of prestige and status, whose use at home helps to improve children’s performance at school. On the other hand, Kiswahili is widely used in urban homes, owing to the diversity of surrounding cultures, and many children are acquiring it as a first language.
Where the field is likely to head
As per my experience, languages in Kenya, especially the indigenous languages are facing a threat, and not only from the official languages, English and Swahili, but also from the hybridization of many vernacular languages. However, the official languages are also affected. This is a result of the mixed languages used by individuals, which affects their competence in both English and Swahili. Researchers and linguist like Rhodes, Whiteley and Samber agree that both formal and informal education can play an important role in reversing language shift. They claims that, if parents could involve their children in cultural activities that put the children in an immersion experience of their heritage culture, it would prevent the replacement of indigenous languages, and hence, cohabit with English and Swahili for a better interaction both within the country and all over the world.
Conclusion
This study looked at the language situation in Kenya, and in particular the shift and choice of English, Swahili, and the indigenous languages in various domains. English has gradually become a lingua franca among the educated Kenyans living in urban areas, and a language that some Kenyans use in their homes, where traditional indigenous languages normally dominate. On the other hand, Kiswahili is the intra-ethnic lingua franca, and the national language. The standard form is taught at school while the non-standard form is increasingly becoming the first language of Kenyan urban children. Education, rural-urban migration, increased inter-ethnic interaction and inter-ethnic marriages, are among the factors that are causing language shift in the home domains.
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