The roots of adult education stretch back in religious education. More emphasis on
adult education came into force after the World War II in 1970s, including the Open
University, which opened for students in 1971. Since the early 1980s there was a
growing concern that the country needs to meet with the new skills. In 1988, White
paper, employment in the 1990s, TECs was established for this purpose.
(Hillage, J. et al 2000)
Recently, government is spending £11 billion a year from its budget on lifelong
learning. The main aim is to maximise achievement, particularly in terms of basic
literacy and numeracy in schools to minimise alienating from learning in later life and
the attainment of basic skills training for adults. To develop new forms of learning
provision using modern technologies to make better efficiency of developing
materials, access problems and make learning available in more digestible units, as
epitomised by learndirect. According to the Labour Force Survey (LFS) learning
activities among adults are rising and one in seven adults (aged 25 or over) are
enthusiastically occupied in formal learning activity. However, participation is not
uniform and varies by age, gender, ethnicity, labour market status, geography, social
class and previous educational experience. (Hillage, J. et al 2000)
According to recent national surveys more than 90 per cent adults in England have
fairly positive attitudes towards learning and believe that education is very important.
Two thirds express a desire to learn while other 50 per cent expect to actually take
part in educational activity in the near future, but there are certain barriers to learn
such as practical or material barriers, including, financial, lack of time, childcare
geographical isolation and lack of information, structural barriers such as lack of
opportunities, age or qualification barrier and constraint of benefit system. Attitudinal
barrier, for example, negative attitudes to learning because of poor school
experiences, lack of confidence, perception that one is too old to learn and lack of
motivation are the biggest barrier towards learning. (Hillage, J. et al 2000)
One factor among the emergence of adult education is the failure of compulsory
educational system. It’s not easy to find out accurate reasons why students or
educational systems are failing. A great deal of research have been conducted into
both student characteristics such as ability, motivation, learning styles, social
background etc. and system characteristics such as teacher training, teaching methods,
curricula, institutions, assessment and guidance. Other measures of ‘failure’ are
under-achievement, wastage and negative attitudes towards learning. (Squire, G.
1987) The formal educational system in the developing countries is typically only
available to or is used by a minority of the adult population. In this type of
circumstances non-formal education encompasses all training activities and organised
educational activities which are not within a formal educational system. Non-formal
type of system may offer more accessibility of means for delivering needed learning,
which also is cheaper. (Tight, M. 1996)
In the context of new development strategies, non-formal education is being viewed as more relevant to the need of the population, especially for those in the rural areas working in the traditional sector, since it attempts to focus on teaching people to improve their basic level of subsistence and their standards of nutrition and general health. . . Further, since the non-formal education process usually requires the participation of its recipients in determining the nature and content of the educational programmes, these will always tend to focus on the needs and priorities of the communities. (Tight, M. 1996)
China is one of the largest countries in the world with a population of 1.2 billion
people. The majority of the population, approximately 80 per cent live in rural areas,
but urban population is also growing rapidly. The official language of China is
Mandarin Chinese and the major religion is Confucian. For centuries Chinese
education and the training have been influenced by Chinese culture in general and
Confucianism in particular. The entire educational system is based on rigid, formal
teaching methods, teacher dictate information and students take notes. Unlike Western
education, discussion in classrooms, use of reference materials and experimentation
methods are regarded as interesting but ineffective. There are set textbook which both
teachers and students have to follow strictly, even memorise. The blackboard is main
teaching equipment, because the scarcity of the funds. For students teachers are the
only source of information and they have the duty to impart knowledge to them.
The process is simply teacher-oriented, textbook-centred, and examination-centred. As Hunter and Keehn (1985, 60) correctly stated: Learning (in China), including that by television, is largely by ‘rote; teaching is lecture with few aids other than the chalk board. Except where the learning is taking place and is directly related to a particular enterprise, there is no ‘learner involvement’, no participatory techniques’, no ‘problem-solving methodologies’. (Shibao, G. 1996 p.1)
There is no doubt that numerous aspects of education in china are at odds with
modern Western thinking and learning. These issues are complex and difficult and
remedial measures are not easily applied. Before examining these issues in detail, it
seems indispensable to review briefly the history and purposes of adult education in
China. Adult education was recognized as education of workers and peasants or free
time education. With the expansion of educational scope and diversification of
educational forms, it was now officially called adult education. (Shibao, G. 1996)
China has formalised their education system probably longer than any other country.
For more than 2000 years the history of Chinese values and education are based on
Confucian principles. Confucianism is a philosophy of human nature that considers
proper human relationships as the basis of society. Traditionally, teachers were listed
among the five categories of those generally respected by society: the God of Heaven,
the God of Earth, the emperor, parents and teachers (Zhou 1988). Students respect
teachers as parents who would look after them with care and love. In response,
students should obey their teachers just as they do their parents. British and American
researchers 1986 and 1990 found that Chinese students were very loyal to their
teachers. They never complained about the methods of teaching they received. ‘One
of the respondents interviewed stated that he does not agree with the British that
people can learn by thinking and asking questions alone. He believes that people have
to recite and remember’. For researcher’s point of view, this type of teaching tends to
conceal any spirit of free inquiry and hinders their ability and creativity. Students
have had to cope with examinations and they waste too much time to prepare
examinations. As a result, they do not seek real understanding of the subjects and their
high scores in exams do not reflect their actual ability. The British researcher also
found that the education system is formally structured with every labelled and with
less flexibility. The syllabus, textbooks and examinations are control by the State
Education Commission or its regional counterparts. On the other hand institutions of
adult education do have more freedom in making a decision what to teach and how to
teach, compared to other formal educational institutions, but this is still limited. One
of the British respondents interviewed made this point clear: The education system
seemed formally structured with everything labelled, every course strictly determined
as to what should in that course, and who was going to teach it, and there seemed
very little room for flexibility. (Shibao, G. 1996)
The first main aim of China’s adult education is to provide education and training of
cultural knowledge, professional skills, and practical ability for new employees and
for those who may switch to new jobs or unemployed people who lack new skills to
meet with job requirements. Second aim is to provide literacy for the illiterates and
thirdly a continuous basic or higher education for those who have left formal school
education. Fourth purpose was for those professional technical or management
personnel who have received higher education and wish to enrich or enhance their
ability and knowledge to fulfil their job needs. Last and biggest motive was to
develop civil service. ()
The expansion of China’s adult education could be divided into three periods. The
first period between 1949 to1966 saw the take-off and development of New China's
adult education known as ‘developing period’. In this developing period the literacy
rate dropped from 80 to 43 per cent. The second period is called the ‘stagnating
period’ which affected by the ten year internal disturbances known as the ‘Cultural
Revolution’ from 1966 to 1976. During this period adult education, like other types of
education, came to a standstill. According to Wang et al. (1988) the third period is
called the ‘redevelopment period’ starting from the 1978. In this period China entered
a new era in the history of adult education. Adult education was restored quickly and
developed enthusiastically. First time Chinese Government officially recognized that
adult education is one of the most important part of education in our country and a
necessary requirement for the contemporary social, economic development and the
progress of science and technology. (Shibao, G. 1996)
According to the Statistical Communique of the State Statistical Bureau of the
People’s Republic of China on 1994 National Economic and Social Development
(Beijing Review, March 20-26, 1995, VII) revealed that in 1994, adult education has
scored as great achievement in the development of China's reform and one million
new students registered by institutions of adult higher education (counting those
enrolled in TV courses, correspondence courses and evening universities), therefore
overall student enrolment add up to nearly 2.4 million. Another 2.2 million adult
students were studying in secondary specialized schools, 66.25 million in adult
technical training schools and 7.6 million in adult junior secondary schools and also in
adult primary schools. An additional, 4.8 million people completed basic literacy
courses in 1994. (Shibao, G. 1996)
Chinese adult education programme could be divided into four categories: adult
elementary, adult lower secondary, adult higher secondary and adult higher education.
Adult courses in literacy and adult basic education are provided through elementary or
middle schools. At the lower secondary level, courses are accessible through
vocational, cultural, Party (Communist) and spare time schools. Some higher
secondary courses are also offered by these schools and others are technical,
correspondence, TV and broadcast, self-study examination system and Party schools.
At the higher level, there are four to six year degree programs offered by universities,
colleges, correspondence, TV education via satellite as well as the system of
examinations for self-taught students at this level. Adult students are granted
university-equivalent diplomas. Two to three year certificate programs and other short
courses such as single courses, single subjects, technical training seminars, workshops
and programs offered by party schools are also available at the this level.
(Shibao, G. 1996)
According to the recent figures, there are 962 independently established institutions of
adult education with 200,390 faculty and staff members. There are 1,311 regular
institutions in which evening schools for academic education and Correspondence
programmes are organized for adult education. Approximately, there are over four
hundred thousands secondary schools and 180,000 primary schools for adults.
Schools of adult education have become important educational resource of the
country. ()
These figures show that adult education has achieved remarkable success particularly
since 1978. Zhao (1992) conducted a study on adult students in a number of
administrative colleges in China and found that 60 per cent students wish to
contribute to the needs of people and the country and 15 per cent who were studying
for diplomas want to improve themselves economically. Another 15 per cent are
interesting to study for a diploma; because they feel that they need to catch up with
social development and 10 per cent have an indifferent attitude to study. At the same
period of time Jones and Wallis (1992) conducted a questionnaire to find out why
people joined adult programs and the reasons for their attending courses in adult
education in China. They found that the idea of centralised or collective direction is
‘of little importance’ to them, while ‘a high degree of independent personal
motivation for education’ is preferable. Although, these findings do not support the
former study, but are nearer to the truth. (Shibao, G. 1996)
The intentions of adult education in China are different from those advocated by
Western educators. China is a classified as a collective culture and thus places the
group above the individual. This collectivism generates pressures on the individual to
conform to cultural norms and group demands. Individual needs are not regarded as
an area of high priority. Hunter (1987) compared China with capitalist countries and
argues: In capitalist countries, the stress may be placed for advantages for the
individual while in socialist countries; greater emphasis is placed on contributions
made to the country’s progress. These arguments may have an effect on people’s
perception of teaching and learning. (Shibao, G. 1996)
In conclusion, it could be said that there is no consensus over the definitions of
‘adult.’ Adult education is very difficult to specify or classify. The curriculum in adult
education is more diverse in terms of aims, content and it’s so wide that it tests the
limits of education itself. This diversification, what to teach and how to teach is
common problem in Chinese adult education system and also United Kingdom’s adult
education system.
Any debate about adult education cannot be successful without considering the
historical, cultural, political, social and economic context. There is a long tradition of
adult education in China, probably longer than any other country in the world. The
roots of Chinese adult education stretch back in Confucianism. China needs more
funds and equipments for better teaching. Students should be given the freedom and
independence to ask questions in class. In United Kingdom adult education spread
widely earlier than it did in other European countries. By comparing both countries
adult participation in learning activities is rising.
Despite the substantial increase in learning activity, many groups and individual
remain excluded from education and training. This is the greatest danger of
unemployment or unsatisfactory employment. Although government is spending a big
amount of money on adult education, there is still an inclination in some institutions
to favour notions of education and training to meet the need of certain age (young)
from certain backgrounds (middle class). At work the most skilled continue to receive
the most training. There is a need to consider the learning needs of communities.
Funding regimes and learning structures no longer seem designed to exclude adult
learners but, more and more to meet their needs.
There are number of challenges there for the government by raising the demand for
learning who are excluded or not interested and encouraging a culture of continuous
learning and development at all levels.
Bibliography:
Akinpelu, J. A. (1995) An Introduction to Philosophy of Education, London:
Macmillan.
Adult Education in China (1998-2000) ()
Hillage, J. Uden, T. Aldridge, F. Eccles, J. (2000) Adult Learning in England a
review, Brighton: Institute for Employment Studies.
Shibao, G. (1996) Adult Teaching and Learning in China, Convergence, 1996, Vol.
29 Issue 1, p21, 13p: EBSCOhost
Squire, G. (1987) The Curriculum Beyond School Chap. Education for Adult,
London: Hodder & Stoughton
Tight, M. (1996) Key Concepts in Adult Education and Training, London and New
York: Routledge