5) Change - This looks at how people change and why they sometimes resist change or are unable to change (Pervin and John, 2001).
Carver and Scheier (2004) believe that theories should be as simple as possible and should have the quality of parsimony, which means it should have as few assumptions as possible.
Correlational and Experimental Research:
Research in personality tends to follow one of three directions:
1) Case Studies - which involve in-depth examination of a single person or a few people. This approach is frequently used in clinical psychology. Considerable information is gathered and the conclusions drawn are based on the subjects complete set of information (Pervin, 2002).
2) Experimental research - involves efforts to gain control over the variables of interest, to manipulate some variables and see the consequences for other variables, and to establish if then causal; in other words, researchers are interested in the causal effects of one variable on another, where they can control for irrelevant variables (Pervin, 2002).
3) Correlational Research - involves seeking many people to be studied because of the extent of establishing conclusion, in other words this research looks for relationships between variables (Pervin, 2002).
Correlational research usually involves measuring the characteristics or features that one is interested in. The analysis may involve plotting of data on graphs (scatterplot) to show the relationship between the data, descriptive statistics e.g. means, medians, modes, or inferential states, e.g. Pearson’s Spearman’s rho correlation co efficient (Carver and Scheier, 2004).
The problem with correlational research is that you have to stop and see that the obvious interpretation could be wrong. There could be another variable playing a factor in the case you are studying. Therefore, it is difficult to come to a conclusion on the cause and effect (Pervin, 2002). On the other hand, correlational research has its strengths. The research can be useful to a researcher who wants to describe the naturally occurring similarities in a large number of individuals or groups (Pervin, 2002). The type of data used in the Correlational approach is largely self report data (S-data) particularly in the form of questionnaires. Self reports are personal beliefs or self-judgements, where effectively the person is asked for his or her own opinion, but sometimes these reports are criticized on the basis that self-perception biases enter and that participants are not always telling the truth. Observer data (O-data) is also used. O-data is gathered information from observers asking direct questions about you, however, this data is subject to human error, where some characteristics are easier to judge than others (Pervin and John, 2001).
Experimental research usually involves measuring or recording something. The analysis involves statistics, which can be descriptive (e.g. percentages, means, medians) or inferential (e.g. t-tests, ANOVAs, ANCOVAs). Inferential statistics are used if there is a hypothesis to answer (AllPsych, 2004). In an experiment, they must have an independent variable, which is what the researcher wants to examine and a dependent variable, which is what is being observed. There also has to be one or more control groups because the manipulations can affect more than just the intended cause (Pervin, 2002). There are weaknesses in experimental research - the researchers cannot always control all the variables e.g. they have no control over nationality or race. Sometimes if people know that they are being tested or observed, they will not be themselves (Pervin and John, 2001). The strengths in experimental research are that the experiments allow causal conclusions. Also, if an experiment is proved justifiable, then researchers can use it repeatedly to study a given occurrence. Therefore, experimental research can support conclusions about cause and effect (AllPsych, 2004). The type of data used in the Experimental approach is self-report data (S-data) and largely test data (T-data). T-data is obtained from experimental procedures (i.e. directly watching what someone does) or standardized tests. Then again, T-data is criticized as not being relevant to ‘real life’ situations but valued on other measures (AllPsych, 2004).
Correlational research allows generalization, and provides one way to study certain topics, while Experimental research can identify cause, but cannot be used to study certain topics. Therefore, the two differ in what they test, but are both excellent ways to test research (Pervin, 2002).
Dispositional and Psychodynamic Perspectives:
The dispositional approach creates systems for classification and describing psychological characteristics for which people differ consistently between situations and over time (PyschLab, 2004). The “trait” approach (which focuses on understanding which dimensions of personality are important and developing optimal ways of placing people on these dimensions) clearly emphasizes the dispositional perspective, but another way to approach the concept of dispositions in terms of their motivational characteristics that vary in strength from person to person, is their “needs and motives” (Carver and Scheier, 2001). There are two major assumptions underlying a dispositional approach: 1) Stability of personality - The idea behind this assumption is that you are the same person you used to be and will be in the future; 2) Differences between people - Each person’s personality consists of a pattern of dispositional qualities which form a unique combination in each person (Carver and Scheier, 2001).
Sigmund Freud’s belief of the psychodynamic approach is that our adult personality and behaviour are determined by our childhood experiences (Pervin, 2001). Although Freud continually revised many of his theories, three of them remained constant.
Firstly, Freud believed that the majority of what we experience in our lives, the underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what drives us is buried in our unconscious (Pervin, 2002). The preconscious or subconscious part of us is the part of us that we can access if prompted, but is not in our active conscious, e.g. telephone numbers and childhood memories are stored in the preconscious (AllPsych, 2004). Because the unconscious is so large, and because we are only aware of the very small conscious, this theory has been likened to an iceberg, where the vast majority is buried beneath the water’s surface (Carver and Scheier, 2004). Secondly, Freud believed that the mind is made up of three parts, the Id, the Ego and the Superego. The id is the part of us that gets our basic needs met with satisfaction (e.g. a child’s needs are met by feeding). The ego part is based on the reality principle. It meets the needs of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the circumstances. The superego is the moral part of us and develops due to the restraints put on us by our parents or caregivers, e.g. directions to right from wrong (Carver and Scheier, 2004). Thirdly, Freud maintained a theory of psychosexual stages of development, which we all pass through in childhood, e.g. the oral, anal, and phallic stages (Pervin, 2001). This will be explained later in the essay.
The Big Five (Metatheory)
The Big Five according to OCEAN are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (Pervin and John, 2001). McCrae and Costa (1999, as cited in Pervin and John, 2001) view the Big Five as basic tendencies to feel and act a particular way, and having a biological basis that is not under the direct influence of the environment.
There are some variations of Wendy’s personality that contrast across the five themes.
One of them is “Extraversion” with factors including bold, forceful, talkative, and self-confident characteristics (McCrae and Costa, 1999). In contrast, Wendy’s character tends to be more introverted, e.g. she could have confronted her employer who promised her time off from work, but instead, her lack of confidence and silence gave in to submissiveness and timidness. Wendy’s pride also delayed home care assistance (which she desperately needed) from nurses, which she eventually did accept.
The “Agreeableness” factor is a very strong feature in Wendy’s personality. Her traits of warmth, kindness, politeness and good naturedness (McCrae and Costa, 1999), was described by her willingness to work extra hours without complaint, her efforts to maintain a relationship with her sister and parents, and the time spent with her daughters and grandchildren.
The “Conscientiousness” factor in Wendy’s nature was clearly evident through her school progress. She was a very hard worker until she became pregnant with her first child, and even when her husband left her she was working to support both herself and her daughters. On the other hand, Wendy also displayed traits of irresponsible behaviour - she was temporarily dismissed for stealing stationery from work (McCrae and Costa, 1999).
The “Neuroticism” or emotional stability factor was portrayed by Wendy’s constant crying, her potential nervous breakdown, and emotional distraught. These were caused by her husband’s infidelities and marriage failure, her illness and hospitalization, and possibly her fear of the unknown for her own future. Neuroticism relates to Wendy’s vulnerability and depression (McCrae and Costa, 1999).
The “Openness” in Wendy’s character was displayed through her intelligence. She was very bright at school, and may have been quite knowledgeable in the secretarial/administrative area. However, she did come across as someone quite simple and unreflective, hence her sickness beneficiary status, plus she was quite closed about certain things like not telling her family about her dismissal from work (McCrae and Costa, 1999).
Psychosexual Theory (Metatheory)
The Psychosexual stages of development is viewed by Freud as movement through a series of stages, with each stage reflecting a body area through which libido, or sexual energy is discharged during that period (Carver and Scheier, 2004).
The first stage is the Oral Stage (0-18 months) where the focus of pleasure is the mouth. Pleasure is gained from sucking and biting things. Too little oral satisfaction i.e. being weaned too early or too late can lead to fixation (Pervin and John, 2001). This is where a person would be 'stuck' in a particular stage. Fixations are revealed by habits in adulthood.
The second stage is the Anal Stage (18 months - 2 years). The focus of pleasure is now the anus. Too little satisfaction, i.e. being toilet trained too early or too late would lead to fixation in this stage. Fixation would lead to personality traits such as over-generosity or meanness (Pervin and John, 2001).
The third stage is the Phallic Stage (4-6 years). This is probably the most challenging stage in Wendy’s development. Freud called it The Electra Complex, which also involves penis envy. This means that a child unconsciously feels sexual desire towards the parent of the opposite sex but also fears that the parent of the same sex will discover their feelings and punish them (Carver and Scheier, 2004). Unfortunately, Wendy was a victim of sexual abuse by her father. As a child her responsibility was to look after her younger siblings, and help her fragile mother. Wendy lacked the love and affection of her father. She was also starved of her mother’s attention and could easily have blamed her for not protecting her from her father. As a result of her strained relationship (particularly her father), Wendy married the first man who paid real attention to her. He seemed to possess all the attributes that she was not receiving from her father. He was kind, and he made her feel attractive and wanted. Throughout Wendy’s life she had experienced many unresolved conflicts, and had not developed her own identity. Although she now feels with the support of her daughters that she is valued, she is still unsure how to deal with it all.
Cross Cultural Perspective
One reason for looking at cross cultural consistency of the Big Five model is that it could provide an evolutionary interpretation of the way individual differences have been processed as personality categories in language (PsychLab, 2004). “The Big Five” factor has been interpreted in seven different languages. This model helps to understand personality, but the underlying analysis of our behaviour and biological attributes should, to some extent, be characteristic in the development of our personality (PsychLab, 2004). Studies in this field are somewhat temperament and we may be able to predict the outcome, however unless nature, nurture and cultural approaches are not synchronised, the study of personality will be limited and contain ongoing setbacks (PsychLab, 2004).
Conclusion
Personality is difficult to define. My impression of personality is that it is made up of many different approaches – each asking a different set of questions and therefore getting different answers. It is complex – it is diverse – it is controversial – it is necessary.
References
AllPsych Online. (2004). Personality synopsis: trait theory - the ocean of personality.
Retrieved 25 March, 2004 from
http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/trait_application.html
Carver, C. & Scheier, M. (2004). Perspectives on personality (5th ed). Boston: Pearson
Education Inc.
John, O. & Pervin, L.A. (2001). Personality: theory and research (8th ed). New York: John
Wiley and Sons Inc.
Kosslyn, S. & Rosenberg, R. (2001). Psychology: the brain, the person and the world.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon Inc.
Pervin, L.A. (2002). Current controversies and issues in personality (3rd ed). New York:
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Psychlab (2004). Theories of Personality. Retrieved 9 April, 2004 from
http://www.psychlab.org/index.htmlychlab.org/index.html P http://www.psychlab.org/index.html LE
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