Lenin’s key contribution to the Bolshevik Party was undoubtedly his ideas. It was he who had caused the split in the Social Democratic Party and formed the Bolshevik group. He ploughed his thoughts and aims into the party directing it from the very start. He was a dedicated man who knew what kind of Russia he wanted and was not afraid to use controversial methods to achieve it. Although he may have been absent for most of the revolutionary period he was still able to advise other leading Bolsheviks of the way forward. He crucially brought forward his April Thesis, which contained slogans of hope to the despondent Russians. It is clear that Lenin could indeed go on to use his powers of argument, his vast understanding and ferocious determination to overthrow or at the very least disturb the fragile Provisional Government of Russia.
- Explain why Lenin and the Bolsheviks replaced the Provisional Government as leaders of Russia by November 1917.
In February 1917 (old style calendar) the Russian Tsarist Empire came to an end as a result of civil unrest in Petrograd during what is known as the February Revolution. A Provisional Government was formed from the Tsarist Duma to act as a ‘caretaker’ government until a proper democracy could be established after the war. At this time a democratic workers assembly was also formed known as the Petrograd Worker’s Soviet, as happened during the 1905 revolution. The Provisional Government accepted the reformation of this revolutionary power largely because its fragility and lack of official authority gave it no choice. The two bodies initially shared power and cooperated to a certain extent as the Provisional Government had the political direction and policies that the Soviet lacked, while the Soviet had the political power and legitimacy of an elected organisation that the Provisional Government did not. It could be said therefore that the Provisional Government represented the liberal bourgeoisie and middle classes while the Soviet represented socialist ideas and the proletariat (working classes). It is clear that from the very start, the Provisional Government was not a stable governing force and that it was widely thought that the bourgeois government was not suitable for the new Russian republic.
Not only did the Provisional Government have to contend with the opposing Petrograd Soviet, as head of state they were responsible for dealing with the new democracy. They were faced with some tough decisions that would greatly influence the Government’s popularity. As time progressed the Provisional Government found itself more and more opposed to the Soviet and their position became increasingly shakier as it became clear that the Provisional Government were committed to fighting the War. This created problems with the Soviet because it contained soldiers among its delegates. The Provisional Government was not suited to the war situation; their unpopular decision to keep fighting did nothing but breed discontent and drain the country’s resources. Another problem that the government had to deal with was that of land. Peasants were demanding land, but the Provisional Government chose to wait until after elections had been held before decisions were made. One reason that the Bolsheviks came to power was that the Provisional Government was unable to solve its problems efficiently for Russia. The mistakes and weaknesses of the Provisional Government were recognised by Lenin and the Bolsheviks who were able to capitalise on the government’s failures in order to gain support for themselves.
In April 1917 Lenin returned to Petrograd after having travelled there from Switzerland across German territory with the consent of the German Imperial Government who even themselves predicted and hoped for Lenin’s rise to power as the Russians would probably leave the war. Almost immediately on his arrival Lenin began causing problems for the Provisional Government, in particular his April Thesis with its slogans of ‘Bread, Land, and Peace’, which were designed to foment discontent among peasantry. He offered the Russians what the Provisional Government would not and so attracted much attention. Food was a particular attraction as the already limited supplies of food coupled with the harsh Russian winters were rapidly spreading discontent.
Lenin’s promise of peace proved a very popular idea and the Bolshevik’s pacifist posture from the very beginning of the war had gained them thousands of supporters. The Provisional Government’s unpopular decision to continue fighting was leaving the country tired, fed up and in dire economic crisis. The army was starting to mutiny and did not give its full support to the Provisional Government.
Not only did Lenin promise peace in ending the war, but he also offered peace in the countryside by promising land reform to the peasants. He made it clear to the Bolsheviks how important the peasants support was as they made up the majority of the population. The peasants were less likely to support the Provisional Government who had ignored their demands for land, which is why Lenin felt it necessary to include this in his thesis. The fact that the Government did not represent the whole nation was another of its downfalls. Lenin emphasized that the Bolsheviks would not support the Provisional Government and refused to share power with it as the Petrograd Soviet had.
July proved to be a bad month for both the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government. Petrograd had erupted with street violence and mass demonstrations after Kerensky had launched a disastrous offensive on the Germans. Soldiers turned to the Bolsheviks but when Lenin arrived at the scene he did not encourage them to take violent action against the Provisional Government or the Soviet as he felt they were not ready. The confused rioters eventually died down. The July days were quite a blow for the Bolsheviks, it appeared as if they had been caught off balance and missed their chance of seizing power. Lenin fled to Finland and many Bolsheviks were arrested. At this point it did not seem possible that they would ever rule over Russia.
From the point of view of political legitimacy, Lenin and the Bolsheviks were already in a severe disadvantage in the Soviet because they had to compete not only with the Mensheviks, but also the Socialist Revolutionaries and the anarchists. Despite the slogans of the April Thesis, the Bolsheviks remained one of the smaller parties in the Soviet. One of their strengths was the formation of the Red Guards consisting of armed soldiers and workers who operated under the authority of the Bolsheviks. This proved crucial during the reactionary Kornilov revolt when Kerensky who could not rely on the loyalty of the Petrograd Garrison in face of an army putsch had no alternative but to call upon the support of Lenin and his Red Guards. This was a blessing for the Bolsheviks, they were able to gain weapons, transform the image of the Bolsheviks and become more powerful politically. The Bolsheviks had appeared to save the Provisional Government, showing that they were not German agents or enemies of Russia as they had sometimes been depicted. The Kornilov Revolt severely upset the delicate balance of power between the Provisional Government and the Soviet and from then on the Provisional Governments position deteriorated. The revolt was a crucial turning point for Lenin and the Bolsheviks
In an attempt to regain initiative, Kerensky and the Provisional Government decided to bring forward democratic elections for the Constituent Assembly, which had previously been scheduled to be held after the War. The Assembly was scheduled to meet in January 1918 after elections at the end of 1917. The results of these elections show the true poor level of support of the Bolsheviks at the start of their rule. Therefore the Bolsheviks seizure of power could be seen as illegal and a coup not as a revolution as it did not have the full support of a revolution. The success of the Bolsheviks in 1917 replacing the Provisional Government can be seen as a result of the progressive loss of support and allies of the Provisional Government over the second half of 1917. Lenin and the Bolsheviks may have lacked legitimacy in their seizure of power but, and this is crucial, in Petrograd itself they had a large basis of support among the workers and sailors in the Kronstadt Naval Base just outside Petrograd. This coupled with the existence of the paramilitary Red Guards gave Lenin the opportunity to mount a coup, despite the opposition of leading Bolsheviks such as Zinoviev. The decision to mount the coup was almost exclusively down to Lenin, without him it would not have been possible. Lenin had put the Bolsheviks in a position to capitalise on the Provisional Governments many mistakes and failures and it was clearly a combination of the two that brought the Provisional Government to its end.
c) The following were equally important reasons why Lenin and the Bolsheviks were able to hold onto power during the Civil War:
- Trotsky’s organisation of the Red Army
- The disunity of the White opposition
- War Communism
- The leadership qualities of Lenin
Explain how far you agree with this statement.
The Civil War challenged the Bolsheviks with a number of difficulties. They were faced with problems that greatly threatened their position. Firstly, they were far from having control over all of Russia and had come only second in the 1917 elections. Their minority status and the fact that they were new to power was not a very positive position for them. As leaders they were responsible for making crucial decisions for Russia. The war situation had to be dealt while still keeping Lenin’s promise of land and food for peasants and workers. To add to their troubles, their position in government was greatly threatened by larger armed adversaries, known as the ‘Whites’, who had already caused the Bolsheviks to in effect lose control of three quarters of Russia. The Whites consisted of all the Russian opponents of Bolshevism who wanted to overthrow them and foreign troops who were angry at Russia pulling out of the war and determined to stop the spread of Communism. The Bolsheviks literally faced enemies on all sides. There is no doubt that the problems faced by the Bolsheviks were very serious and posed a real threat to their survival during the revolutionary period. It was clear that they would have to work hard to sustain power and each of the mentioned factors can be linked together to show how the Bolsheviks ably survived the Civil War.
An obvious reason for the Bolshevik victory would be their control of a supreme fighting force, this they certainly had. Lenin had appointed Leon Trotsky as Commissar for War. Trotsky was a vital cog in the working of the Bolshevik Party; he was responsible for the organisation of the Red Army that he was challenged with building from scratch. As a ruthless, pragmatic, domineering but fair leader, he was an excellent choice by Lenin. Before he was appointed Commissar for War, the Russian Army was in disarray, little discipline was being implemented, capital punishment had been banned and the soldiers were choosing their own officers. As soon as he took control he issued strict orders to the army.
“Every scoundrel who incites anyone to retreat, to desert, or not to fulfil a military order, will be shot.
Every soldier of the Red Army who voluntarily deserts his post will be shot.
Every soldier who throws away his rifle or sells part of his equipment will be shot.
Those guilty of harbouring deserters are liable to be shot.”
- Trotsky 1918.
Trotsky did not give empty threats either; he stuck quite pitilessly to his words. For example, after an army battalion attempted to desert, Trotsky had one in ten soldiers executed. His ruthless nature increased discipline among the troops and his ability to impose a fierce regulation on his army was far from the bickering of their opponents.
Trotsky’s most controversial decision as leader was to employ over 48,000 of the best Tsarist officers. The communists and leftwing social revolutionaries strongly objected, but Trotsky would not let opinions stand in his way. He knew that the trained and experienced officers would prove an asset to the Red Army. However, he knew that he could not rely on their loyalty to the Bolsheviks so he paired each Tsarist with a loyal Bolshevik commissar, known as a ‘Politruk’. The officers could not give orders unless a Politruk approved them. He also imposed the harsher measure of taking hostage of one member from a Tsarist officer’s family, a fierce tactic that worked quite well and gave him control of his army.
However Trotsky was not just a tyrant he was an excellent martial director. He built the army up using conscription and eventually millions of men served in his army. The vast amount of soldiers even allowed for the countless deserters so desertion was not a large problem. Trotsky would frequently visit frontline troops during the Civil War. He could deal with troublemakers; deliver supplies and direct movements in person. His tremendous speeches told the troops exactly what they were fighting for, and greatly raised morale for them. He showed his fairness and insight by recognising and promoting talented soldiers who had never been made officers in the Tsarist army. Men such as Zukov would become the best generals in the army.
While in power Trotsky may have made some unpopular choices, but overall it is clear that he succeeded in turning the Red Army into an affective fighting force. The Red Army certainly made important contributions to the Bolshevik Victory, although alone it does not explain it.
Trotsky’s organisation skills ensured that his Red Army worked efficiently through unison. This gave the Bolsheviks a clear advantage of unity over the Whites. The Bolsheviks were united by a common cause and obeyed one leader. In contrast the White armies were fragmented and separated by large distances and aims. Each army had its own command and interest, which led to mistrust between leaders. This allowed the Reds to eliminate the Whites armies one by one. They had no common strategy and had no effective way of communicating with each other to formulate plans. The armies manoeuvred independently with little coordination. It was not that the Whites failed to form competent plans; it was that the decisions were not implemented throughout the various groups.
The Whites vitally lacked the good, strong leaders that the Bolsheviks had. They failed to inspire their troops leading to low morale and numerous deserters during battle. The commanders were brutal with little respect for their men. They set bad examples by drinking and taking drugs. The fact that there were many different groups within the White Army led to fighting within the troops. Disagreements over political beliefs meant that many quarrels broke out giving an unfriendly atmosphere amongst soldiers. For example, Tsarists who had a completely different agenda to Revolutionaries found it hard to work together. The inability of the White armies to cooperate and work together efficiently gave the Bolsheviks a vital advantage. With a tougher opposition they may not have held their political position long, let alone win the War.
The Whites divide and dispersion over large areas of Russia presented the Bolsheviks with problems of supply. They had been cut off from iron ore in the Urals, coal in the Don and oil at Baku. Industry was greatly suffering and the troops had limited supplies. The government printed more money to pay for its debts although this only led to inflation and magnified the problem of food production. Peasants began subsistence farming to look after their own families, but this led to massive food shortages in towns and cities and in the army. It was essential that this problem was solved otherwise the Bolshevik Red Army would have struggled to continue the war. It was Lenin that introduced the policies of War Communism. War Communism nationalised all large factories and workers were under strict military discipline. The unemployed were forced to join ‘Labour Armies’ and all private trading was banned. Food was sternly rationed in cities and the Cheka seized surplus food from the peasants. Money ultimately became worthless and people began to barter, however wealth was not shared equally. Larger rations of food were given to key workers in the Civil War such as factory workers and soldiers. Eventually revolts began and the New Economic Policy replaced War Communism.
Although it was a very unpopular set of policies and had many negative outcomes, while in existence it crucially succeeded in keeping the Army supplied which was vital if the Bolsheviks hoped to win the Civil War.
The machine behind the Bolshevik party was of course Lenin himself. He had been the founder of the Party, directing it from the beginning and he knew more about organising revolutions than others at the time. Before the Civil War he had managed to convince the Bolsheviks that they could seize power in 1917, been the brains behind the October Revolution, realised the mistakes of the Provisional Government and controversially gave the peasants land, and regained land lost at Brest Litovsk. Lenin knew what kind of Russia he wanted and realised he would have to be ruthless, use terror and propaganda to achieve it.
During the Civil War one of Lenin’s objectives was the difficult but crucial task of organising the food and industrial production in the Red area. It was vital that the army was equipped and had supplies of food if they were to win the war. Lenin had promised food and knew that beforehand the Tsar had been overthrown partly due to a food shortage. He needed to keep his promise, keep his army fed to win the war. He succeeded in this by bravely introducing the unpopular policies of War Communism.
He had achieved significant things for the Bolsheviks and was undoubtedly a real asset to them. He was the organiser, the rationaliser and ideological inspirer that the Whites crucially lacked. Without him the Bolsheviks would not have been in power, let alone have any chance of winning a Civil War. It was his strong ideas and personality that led him to victory.
As well as those mentioned there are several other causes, which attributed to the Bolsheviks success, some of which can be linked in with mentioned factors. Lenin’s superb leadership qualities had led him to foresee that a Civil War would be an inevitable consequence of the revolutionary atmosphere in Russia. In preparation for this, he had moved the Capital City from Petrograd to Moscow in order to begin building an efficient Red Army. This gave the Bolsheviks the control of the logistic heart of Russia. Moscow was the centre of the rail network and telegraph system and meant whoever controlled the city could control the distribution of supplies and food, and move troops quickly throughout Russia as well of the communication of information. In contrast the White armies were scattered over large areas and had difficulties in supplying the troops. However, this tactical advantage nevertheless demanded the excellent organisation of Trotsky.
The Bolsheviks also successfully ploughed propaganda into the Russians. They represented the historic Russia so were able to draw upon the Russians patriotism. The Whites on the other hand were associated with foreign invaders. The Bolsheviks used techniques such as printing political posters to publicise their cause and belittle their opponents. A large proportion of the Russians were illiterate so the Bolsheviks also held parades and theatrical performances based on recent events during the Civil War so that even the less educated peasants were bombarded with Communist views. Newspapers and posters were distributed among the Red Army giving impressions of the Reds invincibility and the harsh consequences of a White victory. However the Whites used this same tactic.
The use of ‘Red Terror’ was also a contributing factor to the Bolshevik victory. The Cheka had been given the power to arrest or execute rivals without trial. Discipline and fear was brought to all those who helped or fought for the White opposition. A prime example is of the murder of the Tsar and his family in 1918, as they were seen as a symbol for the White cause.
The majority of the country were peasants and they had a good reason to back the communists. Land had been recently and eventually given to them, and they were none too keen to lose it again so quickly. If the whites had won the Civil War then landowners would instantly demand their land back.
There is no doubt that all the factors were important to the success of the Bolsheviks. They each gave the Bolsheviks a unique advantage over the opposition, but without any one of the four mentioned it is fair to say that the Bolsheviks may not have won the Civil War, this means that no factor one was more important than another. However, there is a definite link between the factors showing that one was caused as a result of the other. Without the strong leadership of Lenin, Trotsky would not have been appointed and the policies of War Communism would not have been implemented, and so the Red Army would not have gained the appropriate supplies to become such an effective fighting force against the Whites. If the White Army had been better qualified then the Bolsheviks would have been faced with a greater threat and the war could have gone either way. Therefore I can agree with the statement that each of the reasons were equally important to Lenin’s preservation of power through the Civil War.
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