In her study Ferguson points out this cult of femininity is exclusive to women’s magazines, as the magazines available to men do not tell men how to be a man. The magazines assume that men know all they need to know about their masculinity as though masculinity is an innate tendency. However three years after Ferguson’s study George Melly whilst writing a review for an advertising trade magazine, he saw a “new use of sex” (Melly,1986 cited in Hall 1997, pp293) and men had become “passive sex objects” (Melly,1986 cited in Hall 1997, pp293) an example of this was the Levi Strauss Jeans advert in which actor Nick Camen undressed down to his boxer shorts at a laundrette in an erotic manner, with the light emphasising his muscle toned body. In the way this was portrayed it had been described as “fetishizing” and “narcissistic” (Mort,1988 cited in Hall 1997, pp294) in fetishizing the advertisers focussed on the belt and the button fly of the jeans as well as parading the groomed body of the model for the narcissistic pleasures of the viewer. Stuart Hall describes a correlation between these new images of masculinity within the media and a growth in fashion and grooming products which developed a “new man” (Hall 1997, pp295) in creating this new identity this could be argued as creating the need for instructions in masculinity which had until now only been seen within the women’s market and was exploited by magazines such as FHM, Loaded and Maxim which is unquestioned as reading figures for these publications rose when they hit the market. This can be supported by the work of Metcalf and Humphries The Sexuality of Men, that the age old stereotypes of masculinity being based solely on aggression, competition, “emotional ineptitude” (Metcalf & Humphries,1985 cited in Hall 1997, pp296) as well as virility had been overtaken by anxieties and fears about self and especially sexual performance. It could be suggested that long repressed frailties of men were starting to be shown as the growth of the new man became the image to live by and that big boys do cry. Michel Foulcault pointed out that there should be an awareness of where the imagery of the new man is coming from and how it is portrayed is of more importance than the new man himself. He also introduced what he called “technologies of the self” (Foulcault,1988 cited in Hall 1997, pp322) in which instead of portraying a symbolic masculinity that it is important to allow individuals either by themselves or with others to transform themselves and grow to a state of “happiness, purity, wisdom, perfection or immortality” (Foulcault,1988 cited in Hall 1997, pp322). Foulcault’s theories would indicate the media’s creation of gender identity in particular masculinity and continues perpetuate the stereotypes in a way that will leave men questioning who they are and what their roles are within society.
Having looked at the stereotyping of masculinity within the media this essay will now look at how the soap opera contributes to the gender debate within the mass media. Unlike the advertising of masculinity, a soap opera is a fictional representation of reality and a distinct separation can be seen between the fiction and real life. Unlike other forms of media like Women’s Hour on the radio or women’s magazines like Women’s Weekly or Women’s Own a soap opera is not as overtly directed towards women, though it is regarded as a woman’s program because of underlying associations in society between women and soap operas, this is to say that the delivery times of the program are usually at times during the day and early evening when women are most likely to be viewing. The content of these programs are also directed to appeal primarily to women, content such as romance, love affairs, family. This is important as Hall (1997) suggests in order to gender a genre that the concept of address must be understood. By the term address it is meant how a product is produced for its consumer, more than just this it is also about who the target audience is and how it will affect them. Although Hall suggests there is consideration to audience, a radical feminist would argue that because men hold the key positions of ownership, directorship and producing they are able to enforce their own beliefs upon what women see in these programs thus creating further oppression. From a feminist perspective, “the model of communication” (Trowler, 1996, pp 202) would be cited as the stereotypes held by men in the key positions in the media, sending a distorted image and stereotypes which is fed to the public resulting in sexism.
A key concept to understand with women and soap operas is that of pleasure. Many feminists have argued whether pleasure really is derived from watching a soap. Ien Ang’s study of the soap Dallas is an interesting and prevelant study in the debate as to whether women actually gain pleasure from soaps. Ang resulted in receiving many letters from fans of the show, although she is often quoted for saying “is Dallas good or bad for women?” (Ang, 1985, cited in Trowler 1996, pp 202) it is important to note that she herself is able to draw pleasure from the show whilst being able to see the difference between the show and reality “In fact it’s a flight from reality. I myself am a realistic person and I know that reality is different. Sometimes too I really enjoy having a good old cry with them. And why not? In this way my other bottled-up emotions find an outlet” (Ang, 1985 cited in Hall 1997, pp377). This statement made by Ang follows the user gratification model which believes that although the public are subjected to biased images they are the people in ultimate control by exercising their right to freedom of choice and will put their money where they want
However Tania Modelski would argue that soap operas serve purely to oppress women further, she refers to Edmonson Rounds study about the number of letters actresses receive warning them of dangerous pitfalls that their character may be about to come across in the storyline. Modelski describes these actions as “feminine powerlessness being reinforced” (Modelski, 1982 cited in Hall 1997, pp385). By stating this she is denying the pleasures women potentially have to gain, also denying the human tendency to get absorbed into the text they are receiving because of the pleasure it brings. In addition to her radical writing she points out that women are exploited to identifying with a main character whom may be reunited with a lost love only to have it taken away, this is seen as exploiting the emotions of the woman viewer. Charlotte Brunsdon would similarly support these views, she believes that because of the intricate nature of social life, that only someone who fully understands the “rules of romance, marriage and family life” (Brunsdon, 1982 cited in Hall 1997, pp386) can receive the messages given by the program and therefore process the messages without getting lost.
The evidence to support the claim that mass media perpetuates gender stereotypes as far as soap operas are concerned suggest that the majority follow the manipulative model. This is to say that because the media is a powerful entity driven by males who are forceful in their delivery of a media text or program, the images and messages given to the viewer has an effect on their life and roles within society. The works of Charlotte Brunsdon and Tania Modelski would supports this. Lisbet van Zoonen’s work is extremely relevant in supporting the manipulative model of the media. She claimed “the pleasure women derive from watching soap operas [makes is increasingly difficult] to find moral justification for criticising their contribution to the … construction of gender identities” (van Zoonen, 1985, cited in Trowler 1996, pp 202) this suggests that women can not think independently whilst engrossed in a soap and therefore are receiving forced messages from that of the producers of the programme. However when Ang suggests it is possible for a viewer including herself to derive pleasure and think independently offers an example of the user gratification model.
With the growth and development of the new man through the advertising medium the manipulative model is applied in telling men who they are and how they should live, irrespective of his right to freedom. As a result a culture of men have become groomed to living the way an advertiser believes they should. This belief which started on an ad man’s desk has quickly spread to the world of men’s magazines which have evolved from naked women into a new lifestyle and definition of masculinity. As a result of this new definition of masculinity a new stereotype has evolved suggesting a man should be strong yet emotionally in tune.
Although it is still unclear as to whether the media perpetuates gender stereotyping it is clear however that it is responsible for creating its own sets of stereotypes.
Bibliography
Giddens, A. Sociology, 4th Edition, 2001, Polity Press, UK
Haralambos, M. Holborn, M. 4th Edition, 1995, Collins Educational, London
Kirkby, M. Kidd,W et al, 1st Edition, 1997, Heinemann Educational Publishers, Oxford.
References
Collins English Dictionary 5th Edition, 2000, HarperCollins Publishers, Glasgow.
Hall, S. Representation Cultural Representation and Signifying Practices, 1st Edition, 1997, The Open University & Sage Publications, UK.
Trowler, P. Investigating Mass Media, 2nd Edition, 1996, HarperCollins Publishers, London.
