European expansion and colonialism had a significant impact on the European economy. Discovery of the Americas meant that countries on the fringe of Western Europe, such as England, Spain, France and Portugal, began to dominate trade. The countries explored included Asia, Africa and the Americas. Potatoes, tomatoes and maize from America began to change the Europeans’ diet. In 1503, gold and silver from Mexico and Peru began flooding the continent, which contributed in part to the Price Rise of 1550 onwards.
However, trade was hindered by customs duties, which were not only charged upon entry into a country, but were also enforced during travel within a country’s borders.
Despite many changes in the economy, transport remained more economical by water than land, because animals and humans were the only power source available. In Eastern Europe, even the grandest houses still had windows covered with oiled paper. Because transport links were non-existent in many areas, a significant number of the continent’s inhabitants were farming at subsistence level. Many people in the 16th century didn’t venture far beyond their hometown for the duration of their lives.
Although inflation indicated healthy economic growth and expansion, for much of the 16th century, most households suffered from its adverse effects, and lived in poverty for the majority of the period.
Politics in Europe saw a significant shift towards absolutism during the 16th century. Europe was made up of a system of states, most of which remained essentially the same during the early modern period. However, an example of change regarding territory was when Spain incorporated Portugal briefly, between 1580 and 1640, and also its expansion to the North, under Ferdinand.
During the period, international diplomacy between states became more formalised than before; the role of parliament diminished on the continent, while the role of ministers expanded.
A significant change in international relations was the rise of Ottoman Turkey; the Ottoman Empire became the most powerful state in 16th century Europe. A key date in the rise of the Ottoman Turks was the capture of Constantinople in 1453.
One of the main differences between medieval and early modern Europe was possibly the rise of new types of political state. Known previously as ‘New Monarchies’, these states involved the centralisation of and increase in the monarch’s political power. This was the case in Spain, France, and England. However, this did not mean total loss of all power for representative groups and the aristocracy. The Holy Roman Empire experienced a rise in the power of individual rulers from the end of the 15th century. Princes and rulers reduced the Holy Roman Emperor’s power, which was speeded up by the Reformation. By 1555, the Emperor’s power was significantly reduced, and a century later, would have become a title of honour only, lacking any political leverage.
Borders and frontiers became more clearly clarified, which consequently led to the development of a clearer identity for states. European princes chose to fight more intensively, and in a more organised fashion than before, which led to increasingly expensive wars, (often wars of attrition), causing bureaucracies to grow and tax officials to multiply.
It is important to recognise that although the early modern period was a time of enormous change, social structure is one of the things that changes very slowly by comparison. An example is the way family worked. Today’s model of parents and children as a single unit was alien in the 16th century. Several generations, including cousins, grandparents and servants, occupied the same dwelling. The role of women was changing - they were made less economically independent and second-class citizens to men, whereas during the medieval period they had had some economic influence.
Classes were not commonly spoken of – instead social ‘orders’ was the term used, which were determined by rank instead of economic status. Theoretically, there were three ‘orders’ – at the top was the nobility, then monks and priests, with townsmen and peasants at the bottom of the heap. But in reality it was more complicated and less clear-cut than this.
The nobility was exempt from direct taxation, because they fought for the state. Some churchmen were social equals of the nobility. This reflected the attitude towards religion prevalent at the time (although this changed to a certain extent during the period, due to the increase in secularism).
In general, peasants were able to demand a better deal at the start of the century, since the Black Death, which had killed a great number of the labour force (before this, many had been treated almost on a par with slaves). However, a population increase reversed this to a certain extent, as land became in shorter supply. From 1550 onwards, peasants’ and urban workers’ revolts erupted frequently. This was mirrored in the increasing violence of society illustrated by more common events such as public executions, massacres, plagues, and assassinations of major public figures.
Witchcraft was an integral part of the mental climate of the 16th century, and included both the educated and the illiterate amongst its believers; examples of the former group included French political philosopher Jean Bodin (1530-96), and English jurist Sir Edward Coke (1533 – 92). Hysteria towards witches often occurred at times of great social and economic distress, which may indicate that they were useful scapegoats for society. Between 1561 and 1670, 3229 women were executed (by burning or hanging) in South-Eastern Germany. Meanwhile, in England, 1000 were executed between 1559 and 1736. Both these examples indicate the seriousness of the situation, and that it cannot really be considered to be a very small minority of heretics involved in the accusations.
Although there was a growing group of landless wage labourers at the bottom of the social ‘order’, the nobility were likely to have been the most important group in society, because princes were forced to recognise their significance in order to try to secure or extend their powers.
Religious conflict caused changes in popular beliefs during the 16th century. The rise of scepticism – doubt that (religious) certainty is ever attainable – led to an increase in acceptance of secularism (not sacred). The rise of science during this period is also linked to scepticism.
In the sciences, the experimental method gained increasing acceptance, and natural phenomena came to be considered on a more natural level (linked to humanism and Erasmus). Besides this, the symbolism of nature began to lose its long-standing authority.
The church at the start of the 16th century was at its most stable for some time – the great schism (divide) between two popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon, had ended, with the Pope in Rome as the Head of the Church – acting as supreme legislator and judge, he issued instructions called papal bulls. The Church was closely intertwined with the state, and the pope was frequently forced into compromises with princes. This was partly due to the fact that bishops were the most powerful landowners and no King could allow completely free reign over who was appointed.
The structure of the Church was a complicated hierarchy, with bishops, abbots, monks, parish priests and laymen – many of whom formed confraternities (religious clubs). It is estimated that 10% of the population may have been members of one, and cities may have had several dozen.
Towards the end of the medieval period, abuses (immorality and corruption) were rife in the church. Simony – the sale of Church jobs, with the aim of increasing Church funds, led to pluralism – possession of more than one Church job at any one time. This led to the exploitation of the church by its officials, instead of them serving it.
In an attempt to keep the church separate from the rest of the world, celibacy was a rule imposed by the Pope. However, there was no effective discipline in place to enforce it – fines were frequently the punishment for breaking the rule. In fact, it seemed that rules were made to be broken – because they helped to raise church funds.
Church taxes included 10% of all produce and ‘Peter’s Pence’ - a tax on all hearths, paid to the Pope.
The abuses of the Church made it popular among the wealthy because it allowed them to add Church offices (jobs) to their acquisitions. The corruption was generally accepted as normal, but the coming of the Reformation led to changing beliefs, which caused reconsideration of abuses and their true value.
The invention of the printing press may have been the greatest technological breakthrough in communications until telecommunications and the Internet. It led to a faster spread of Luther’s and Calvin’s ideas across the continent, which may have contributed to the ignition of the Reformation in the 16th century, starting in Germany, and spreading to England and elsewhere, which was followed by the Counter Reformation as the Catholic Church sought to regain Church lands lost to Protestantism. Both the Reformation and the Renaissance are recognised as widespread, long lasting revolutions, which were unheard of during the Middle Ages. This has to be partly contributed to the advent of printing.
This brief, and in places, inaccurate comment on aspects of the early modern period is greatly lacking in its depth of exploration. The topic is a huge one and naturally has a variety of outlooks as to the importance of various characteristics. However, it is clear that the 16th century was a time of immense change in some areas, such as schools of thought and the Church, while others changed painfully slowly, such as social structure. Change in the early modern period is dominated by individuals such as Luther and Calvin, who had lasting effects on the way the modern world is shaped. Indeed, the 15th and 16th centuries saw developments which have lasted long beyond their own frontiers.