Chapter II. The Notion of Metaphor.
When I use a word…it means just what
I choose it to mean, neither more nor less
(Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland)
Our language can call to mind engaging sights, smells, tastes, and sounds. With language, we can bring an idea to life and make abstractions seem concrete. Figures of speech, such as similes, personification, and metaphors, can create powerful images for the audience. Powerful images are often what makes the speeches appealing, interesting, and memorable.
Aristotle described a command of metaphors as “the greatest thing by far” (Cindy L. Griffin, Invitation to Public Speaking). The word metaphor comes from a Greek term meaning “transference”. It is a comparison between two things that describes one thing as being something else. In language, a metaphor is a defined as a direct between two seemingly unrelated subjects. In a metaphor, a first object is described as being a second object. Through this description it is implied that the first object has some of the qualities of the second. In this way, the first object can be economically described because implicit and explicit attributes from the second object can be used to fill in the description of the first. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). When we use metaphors, we are transferring the qualities of the thing to another, illustrating their similarities. Although many metaphors create associations that are obvious (for example, “the war on drugs”), some are more subtle, such as Guatemalan human rights advocate Rigoberta Menchu’s “we are not myths of the past, ruins in the jungle, or zoos”. In the”war of drugs”, the comparison is explicit- the government is responding to drug trafficking in a warlike manner. In contrast, Menchu’s comparison of the Mayan people to myths, ruins, and zoos is more subtle. In both examples, the metaphors make the comparison memorable (Rigoberta Menchu, Five Hundred Years of Sacrifice before Alien Gods).
What exactly a metaphor is, and how it works, has long been the subject of debate in philosophy, linguistics, psychology, and literary theory. Metaphor has traditionally been treated as a figure of speech or literary device reflecting imprecise thinking or added to non-metaphorical speech for decoration. Newer developments treat metaphor more as a way of seeing and/or learning, and as such, as an elemental part of language and thought, rather than as decoration which can be eliminated. From this point of view, metaphors as literary devices constitute a subset of the more general human cognitive activity.
Metaphors direct vision, thinking, and action. While they give new insight into and understanding of some things, they can blind us to other aspects of the situation. By highlighting some aspects and obscuring others, they organize perceptions of reality and suggest appropriate actions in light of those perceptions.
With the advent of Lakoff and Johnson’s work Metaphors We Live By, which is a milestone in contemporary theory of metaphor, even greater interest was stimulated as new avenues of thinking about metaphor opened, namely cognitive science studies about how metaphors shaped common-sense thinking. They suggested a new interpretation of metaphor in the context of the conceptual metaphor theory. It contains several important points:
- Metaphor is an important mechanism with the help of which we conceive abstract concepts and talk about them.
- Metaphor by its nature is a conceptual phenomenon.
- Metaphor is based on our culture and experiences.
The use of metaphors in political language has attracted particular attention in recent years. There are two different points in such discussions. The first is that political speakers can use metaphors in rhetorically effective ways to create new meanings and to challenge previously established ways of understanding. The second is that metaphors can function as routine idioms in political discourse in ways that deaden political awareness.
George Lakoff warned: “Metaphors can kill. The discourse over whether to go to war in the gulf was a panorama of metaphor. Secretary of State Baker saw Saddam Hussein as "sitting on our economic lifeline." President Bush portrayed him as having a "stranglehold" on our economy. General Schwarzkopf characterized the occupation of Kuwait as a "rape" that was ongoing. The President said that the US was in the gulf to "protect freedom, protect our future, and protect the innocent", and that we had to "push Saddam Hussein back." (George Lakoff, Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf)
Chapter III. Analysis of Metaphors in the Inaugural Addresses of
George Walker Bush.
Coming from a prominent political family, his grandfather Prescott Bush had been a senator from Connecticut and his father a U.S. congressman and political appointee; George W. Bush had been immersed in politics since childhood. Bush actively took part in politics and in 1988 headed to Washington to become a paid adviser to his father's successful presidential campaign.
During the 2000 campaign, Bush adhered closely to the traditional conservative line, favoring small government, tax cuts, a strong military and opposing gun control and abortion.
Thus his background influenced his vocabulary and explained his familiarity with an American political tradition.
President Bush's broad characterizations of the terrorist threat led him to expand the scope of his foreign policy from al-Qaeda and other terrorist organizations to other regimes hostile to the United States, regardless of their connection to the Sept. 11 attacks. He famously labeled Iraq, along with North Korea and Iran, as part of an axis of evil. Over the course of 2002, President Bush announced that the U.S. foreign strategy of containment and deterrence was an outdated cold war policy.
Moral values and fighting terrorism were cited as the two main issues that won the president his second term.
In the following analysis of Bush’s speeches of 2001 and 2005, we can see his statement about American policy, how the metaphors reflect it, what kind of metaphors he uses and with what purpose, and how they express certain concepts both of American internal and foreign policy.
1. Freedom metaphors.
The most central and salient notion in Bush’s addresses is the notion of freedom and democracy, which is central in the political life of the USA as well and has been rooted in the history of this country. Lakoff states that politics is primarily concerned with issues of freedom and economy (Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark, Metaphors We Live By), and the speeches of Bush prove it being abundant with the metaphors of freedom.
First of all the metaphors used in the speeches of the President show that freedom and democracy are natural phenomena.
America's faith in freedom and democracy was a rock in a raging sea. Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations.
At the same time freedom is force.
We have seen our vulnerability - and we have seen its deepest source. For as long as whole regions of the world simmer in resentment and tyranny - prone to ideologies that feed hatred and excuse murder - violence will gather, and multiply in destructive power, and cross the most defended borders, and raise a mortal threat. There is only one force of history that can break the reign of hatred and resentment, and expose the pretensions of tyrants, and reward the hopes of the decent and tolerant, and that is the force of human freedom.
Liberty and freedom have voice.
Some, I know, have questioned the global appeal of liberty - though this time in history, four decades defined by the swiftest advance of freedom ever seen, is an odd time for doubt. Americans, of all people, should never be surprised by the power of our ideals. Eventually, the call of freedom comes to every mind and every soul. We do not accept the existence of permanent tyranny because we do not accept the possibility of permanent slavery. Liberty will come to those who love it.
Freedom is inseparable from the humanity.
We go forward with complete confidence in the eventual triumph of freedom. Not because history runs on the wheels of inevitability; it is human choices that move events. Not because we consider ourselves a chosen nation; God moves and chooses as He wills. We have confidence because freedom is the permanent hope of mankind, the hunger in dark places, the longing of the soul.
Freedom is fire, America has the mission of carrying it to all nations and the long journey of this mission still has to be passed.
By our efforts, we have lit a fire as well - a fire in the minds of men. It warms those who feel its power, it burns those who fight its progress, and one day this untamed fire of freedom will reach the darkest corners of our world.
America has need of idealism and courage, because we have essential work at home - the unfinished work of American freedom. In a world moving toward liberty, we are determined to show the meaning and promise of liberty.
Our democratic faith is more than the creed of our country, it is the inborn hope of our humanity, an ideal we carry but do not own, a trust we bear and pass along. And even after nearly 225 years, we have a long way yet to travel.
Thus it is evident that thanks to the metaphors of freedom used Bush not only gave the outline of his policy but tried to carry to every American the very importance of freedom, liberty and democracy. The metaphors allowed Bush to talk about abstract concepts of freedom, liberty, and democracy in a way that everyone could understand. America appears to be the bulwark of freedom for the whole world. The metaphors, however, were not original but traditional and in such a way Bush was trying to emphasize the continuity of his presidency. had the mission of carrying freedom to the darkest corners of the world after the Second World War, during the Cold War, during the war in Vietnam, and Iraq.
2. Biblical metaphors.
Americans have always paid great attention to religion which can be seen even in all political speeches. Thus, American politicians always end their speeches with the reference to God. In his Inaugural Addresses Bush follows the tradition and uses numerous images taken from the Bible and also referring to the Declaration of Independence, which was mentioned above as a new Gospel for the new nation.
And I can pledge our nation to a goal: When we see that wounded traveler on the road to Jericho, we will not pass to the other side.
In the following quotation we see that Bush speaks about democracy in biblical terms.
Sometimes in life we are called to do great things. But as a saint of our times has said, every day we are called to do small things with great love. The most important tasks of a democracy are done by everyone.
The President himself is trying to live according to the Christian principles.
I will live and lead by these principles: to advance my convictions with civility, to pursue the public interest with courage, to speak for greater justice and compassion, to call for responsibility and try to live it as well.
In the following example Bush refers both to the Declaration of Independence and to the Bible as well, using the extended metaphor to create a beautiful poetic vision of his saint policy and to appeal to common people.
After the was signed, Virginia statesman John Page wrote to : ``We know the race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. Do you not think an angel rides in the whirlwind and directs this storm?''
Never tiring, never yielding, never finishing, we renew that purpose today, to make our country more just and generous, to affirm the dignity of our lives and every life.
This work continues. This story goes on. And an angel still rides in the whirlwind and directs this storm.
America's vital interests and our deepest beliefs are now one. From the day of our Founding, we have proclaimed that every man and woman on this earth has rights, and dignity, and matchless value, because they bear the image of the Maker of Heaven and earth.
Taking into consideration that people of America are of different nations and religions, Bush makes allusions not only to the Christian tradition but also uses metaphors which underline it. Again these notions are closely connected with freedom and democracy. It is significant that Bush uses here the metaphor “freedom is our religion” as well.
In America's ideal of freedom, the public interest depends on private character - on integrity, and tolerance toward others, and the rule of conscience in our own lives. Self-government relies, in the end, on the governing of the self. That edifice of character is built in families, supported by communities with standards, and sustained in our national life by the truths of Sinai, the Sermon on the Mount, the words of the Koran, and the varied faiths of our people. Americans move forward in every generation by reaffirming all that is good and true that came before - ideals of justice and conduct that are the same yesterday, today, and forever.
Analyzing the above-listed metaphors it is evident that George Bush used them in order to project himself as a model Christian and at the same time he did not forget that America is a country of many religions and every citizen is important for him. By using biblical metaphors Bush emphasized the sacred role of his country blessed by God, hid the reality of the war he unleashed and at the same time justified it with the help of the rich imagery.
3. America is a protector of world’s values.
America has always been trying to occupy a special place in the world, and in the examples given below we see that Bush declares with the help of metaphors the main direction of the foreign policy.
After the shipwreck of communism came years of relative quiet, years of repose, years of sabbatical - and then there came a day of fire.
This metaphor repeats the common political metaphor “politics is journey” and by using it Bush underlines that though one of the main enemies of the USA disappeared, still the country had some new mission to fulfill.
All who live in tyranny and hopelessness can know: the United States will not ignore your oppression, or excuse your oppressors. When you stand for your liberty, we will stand with you.
Democratic reformers facing repression, prison, or exile can know: America sees you for who you are: the future leaders of your free country.
The leaders of governments with long habits of control need to know: To serve your people you must learn to trust them. Start on this journey of progress and justice, and America will walk at your side.
America, in this young century, proclaims liberty throughout all the world, and to all the inhabitants thereof. Renewed in our strength - tested, but not weary - we are ready for the greatest achievements in the history of freedom.
Here Bush in a metaphorical way speaks about very important changes in the world that happened thanks to his policy, such, for example, as Orange Revolution in the Ukraine or Velvet Revolution in Georgia. It is obvious that the nice words in fact hide or distort severe reality, blind people and make them believe that American foreign policy benefits the world community.
4. Metaphors reflecting American internal policy.
I will work to build a single nation of justice and opportunity. What you do is as important as anything government does. I ask you to seek a common good beyond your comfort; to defend needed reforms against easy attacks; to serve your nation, beginning with your neighbor. I ask you to be citizens: citizens, not spectators; citizens, not subjects; responsible citizens, building communities of service and a nation of character.
Where there is suffering, there is duty. Americans in need are not strangers; they are citizens, not problems, but priorities. And all of us are diminished when any are hopeless.
It is curious that the metaphors about home policy are much less than those referring to the foreign one. In such a way the priorities of Bush’s course become clear evident. At home everything was already done, but the world was still suffering form injustice, tyranny, lack of freedom and democracy. The metaphors used to demonstrate Bush’s home policy can be treated as a simple idle talk, mentioned for the sake of mentioning.
Conclusion
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in their work Metaphors We Live By state that metaphor for most people is a device of poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish- a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language and most people think they can get along perfectly well without a metaphor. The present paper proved that metaphors are pervasive even in politics, sometimes even having become traditional and rooted in people’s culture. As a result of a thorough analysis a conclusion may be drawn: metaphor in political discourse does not entirely consist of frozen conventionalizations, as say our common-place acceptance that GOOD IS UP and DOWN IS BAD (Lakoff and Johnson. 1980). Rather, political discourse is constructed interactively, over time and across interlocutors.
The use of metaphor in political discourse permits to create common ground by appeal to a shared cultural frame. Thus metaphors become instrument that embody otherwise amorphous or remote concepts in ways that the public can readily understand, that hide or distort the reality, demonstrate the necessity of a certain policy, make people believe in appropriateness of certain actions. The vivid imagery can make boring political speech interesting and remembered. People obviously believed Bush as he was elected for the second presidency, and not the last role in their decision played the metaphors he used.
Bibliography:
Auer, Jeffery. The Rhetoric of Our Times. Indiana University, 1968.
Billig, Michael and Macmillan, Katie. “Metaphor, idiom and ideology: the search for ‘no smoking guns’ across time”. Discourse and Society. (vol. 16 #4, 2005): 459-467
Griffin, Cindy. Invitation to Public Speaking. Colorado State University, 2004.
Hogins, James and Yarber, Robert. Reading, Writing and Rhetoric. 4th ed., 1979.
Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark. Metaphors We Live By. The University of Chicago Press, 1980.
Lubell, Samuel. The Great Debates: Background- Perspectives- Effects. Indiana University Press, 1962.
Lucas, Stephen. The Art of Public Speaking. Boston, Massachusetts, 1998.
Santa, Ana. “Anti-immigrant discourse”. Discourse and Society. (vol. 10 #2, 1999): 192-198.
Wills, Garry. Lincoln at Gettysburg. The Words That Remade America, 1992.
