Third order entities (O3Es): Abstract entities, such as prepositions, which are outside space and time.
Following Zenteno, we can state that O2Es can be linguistically identified as O1Es, i.e. as if they were entities proper. The typical syntactic construction used to identify O1Es is the noun phrase. Then, O2Es identified by noun phrases are viewed as 'pseudo entities' or 'entified events'.
Referring Expressions
Traditionally, it has been thought that reference is a property of expressions, that we can determine if a linguistic expression is a referring expression or not independently of any context of use, and that we can identify the referent of an expression only by means of the descriptions contained in it and its form.
The problem underlying the study of referring expressions is that it has focused mainly on decontextualised linguistic expressions: most theoretical studies concentrate on the analysis of expressions which have the potential of being used referentially.
A potential referring expression must comply with, firstly, meaning (i.e., to be able to act as potential semantic identifiers; secondly, grammatical function (namely, to act as subject, object or adverbial in a sentence or clause); thirdly, syntactic structure (different categories of noun phrases or noun clauses); and fourthly, pragmatic function (referential versus predicative).
On the other hand, actual referring expressions are those which are actually used by addressers in real situations of communication with the intention of identifying particular entities in either real or imaginary, fictional or hypothetical world. All the potential referents of a referring expression, according to their sense and denotation, are included in what is called the 'referential range' of a referring expression.
Primary And Secondary Referrring Expressions
A complex referring expression identifying a 'primary referent' is called a 'primary referring expression'. The primary referent is the referent of the whole expression and corresponds to the intended referent of the user of that expression.
The embedded expressions are called 'secondary referring expressions' that identify 'secondary referents', which help in the identification of the primary referent, i.e., they are used to restrict the reference of the head element of a referring expression.
Co-Reference
Co-reference is a pragmatic relation that holds between different referring expressions which are used to identify the same entity within the same text.
These expressions are called co-referring expressions and they can be defined as the set of paradigmatic referring expressions, which may or may not be different in syntactic form and semantic meaning, that are used to identify a given referent within the same text. Thus, co-referring expressions are appropriate according to the context in which they are used.
Aspect
If a speaker refers to an object, it is necessary that there should exist a linguistic device which the speaker can use to do so. Searle claims that the linguistic devices used correspond to the different linguistic representations or 'aspects' of the object referred to.
Co-referring expressions illustrate the many aspects under which any entity can be referred to.
The choice of a referring expression involves several factors, such as context (linguistic and social context), beliefs of the speaker (what he thinks the hearer knows about the object), knowledge of the speaker (what he knows about the entity) and attitude of the speaker (how he 'feels' about the entity)
Existential Presupposition And Referring Expressions
When an addresser uses a referring expression to identify a particular entity, there is the existential presupposition that there exists an entity which can be identified, and there is also the assumption on the part of the addresser that the expression used to identify that entity is appropriate to that context of communication. The addressee makes a similar assumption as well.
When referring to entities which are not part of the real world, one presupposes that they exist in an imaginary, fictional or hypothetical world and the interlocutor accepts this type of presupposition. Generally, the context in which these expressions occur will make the referential act effective.
Existence And Truth
Traditionally it has been claimed that referring expressions must be true of the referent they are identifying. This is closely connected with what has been called 'correct reference', which is supported by the idea that the addresser is identifying a referent and also has the intention of allowing his addressee to do the same.
Lyons explains that the truth or the falsity of the referring expression is not directly relevant to its success, because speakers and hearers do not rely only on the words uttered to achieve a successful identification. Reference depends upon whether the speaker succeeds in communicating to the hearer his intended referent.
General And Particular Existential Presuppositions
Donellan postulates that "when a definite description is used referentially, not only is there a presupposition that someone or something fits the description, but also the speaker presupposes of some particular someone or something that he or it fits the description" and it is for this reason that we cannot assign a referential interpretation to a noun phrase in isolation from any real context of use.
Successful Reference
Sometimes the addressers manage to refer although the intended referent does not fit the description used to refer to it. This type of reference is called 'successful reference'.
The speaker may use an expression which he believes incorrectly is true of the referent or sometimes people want to refer to given entities without knowing which expressions to use, but still they do not fail to refer, since the uniqueness of reference is understood by the addressees by means of the user of the expression and the context in which it is used together with the expression.
Context
Context is understood as involving all the relevant features of the circumstances in which linguistic messages are uttered and which influence their production and interpretation. These features can be related to physical, social, cultural or political aspects surrounding a speech event and to psychological aspects relative to the participants in the interaction.
The context in which a speech situation is taking place will indicate first of all if an expression is being used referentially; secondly, which referring expressions, among the many potential referring expressions, are more appropriate to identify any given entity; thirdly, it will also help determine the actual referents of the referring expressions used; and fourthly, it can help us determine which information is (un)necessary for identification.
Context, therefore, limits and determines the set of descriptions which are appropriate in certain circumstances for successful identification.
Accordingly, we can say that the referential range of a referring expression is fixed by their sense and denotation but their actual reference depends upon a variety of contextual factors.
Closely related to the latter is the idea of 'variable reference': most linguistic expressions which have the potential of being used as uttered in different occasions, by different speakers to refer to different entities. Thus, the actual referent of referring expressions varies according to the circumstances in which the expression is used.
Context is also relevant in the expression of pragmatic meanings. Addressers have to secure reference to their intended referents first to succeed in the expression of pragmatic meanings an in the communication of those meanings to his addressees.
Co-Text
Co-text is defined as the relevant linguistic information which surrounds a given linguistic expression and which contributes to its understanding.
It involves the previous and subsequent discourse in which a linguistic expression used referentially is embedded and that it is useful in identifying the referent of that expression and its main function is to limit the range of possible interpretations we might give to them. It also helps to determine the referent of that expression especially in terms of co-reference, and more specifically, in terms of anaphora and cataphora.
