Word Count: 164
Question Part 2
Discuss the implications of the global spread of English for the learning and teaching of the language.
The global spread of English has been immense. In recent years English has become ‘the dominant language of world communication’ (Crystal, 2002, p.31) and is being used as an international academic language for teaching purposes. In the Middle Ages, Latin was used as the lingua franca of academic communities; however, in the late 1800s the United States of America took the lead in publishing academic works in English. Today the escalating use of English for higher education has replaced other languages as academic languages. In this essay it will be highlighted how English is being used increasingly by non-native speakers for several reasons. It will then be shown how an increase in the use of English affects both the English language and the languages with which it comes into contact, how it provokes different socio-political reactions according to different contexts and entails economic consequences.
According to Crystal (2002), there are two categories of non-native English users: those who use English as a ‘second’ language and those who use English as a ‘foreign’ language. The countries in which English is learned as a ‘second’ language include Nigeria, India, Malta and Malaysia. In these countries English enjoys a ‘special status’, often having been selected as an ‘official’ language. The selection of English as a second language in these countries is a direct result of the British colonial experience. English in these countries was appointed to act as an internal lingua franca, enabling communication between speakers of different local languages, and possibly diminishing any tension between various tribes and ethnicities which may have arisen as a result of the promotion of any one particular indigenous language.
The second kind of ‘learning situation’ Crystal (2002) highlights is that in which English is learned as a ‘foreign language’ in countries where it does not enjoy any official status. Here he identifies the one principal motivating factor which is causing state institutions and individuals across the globe to invest their time and money in the teaching and learning of English. It is the status English enjoys as the global lingua franca which is fueling the increase in interest in the language: the more useful English is seen to be, the more people will see the need to use it (Crystal, 2002). For instance, in Morocco ‘French remains the predominant foreign language taught in schools...but a reading knowledge of English has become increasingly important at university level’. (Bourne, 2007)
The increase in English use among non-native speakers has had and will almost evidently continue to have consequences. The most substantial linguistic consequence of the spread of English in these areas, however, has been the emergence of new varieties such as Indian English and Nigerian English. The cause for this might be that local teachers are more used to the local varieties of English and teaching Standard English might be difficult for them and employing native English speakers from UK or USA is expensive. Just how these varieties will be affected by a continuing rise in the use of English cannot be distinctly determined. It is possible, however, that the status of English as a global lingua franca will act as a focusing agent causing them to converge with other standard varieties. This process would be similar to that of ‘de-creolization’ which took place in countries like Jamaica. In this case it is expected that the new Englishes would be more intelligible. However, if education opportunities remain limited in these countries, it is also possible that only a small, educated elite will continue to speak a standardized variety and that the English of the masses will diverge away from the standard under the influence of the indigenous substrates.
Even in those countries where English is spoken as a “foreign” language, it would be possible to identify new “national varieties”, providing that either the political will or the academic motivation to do so existed: the French, Italians, Dutch, Germans or Chinese all have their own particular way of speaking English. Since the socio-political conditions in these countries are radically different from those in which the “new Englishes” developed it is unlikely that the emergence of an abundance of new varieties will be witnessed. However, the effect that such a large body of non-native speakers of English might have upon native speaker varieties needs to be considered. If English has indeed become a global commodity, beyond the control of the “native-speaking” countries, we would ultimately expect native varieties to be as subject to change through this increased contact as any other, as some form of “levelling” takes place.
In addition to the purely linguistic consequences associated with the increase in the use of English there are social, political and economic factors to be considered. In countries like Nigeria, where English has been integral to the concept of Nation and Nigerian parents want their children to be multilingual so they have the widest range of opportunities (Bisong, 1995), there is a tendency to promote the recognition of new national varieties. In a country such as France, where French is the language associated with national identity and children normally get only four hours of English education after they turn eleven, the state has reacted by legislating to restrict the encroachment of English upon the French language. It is debatable as to whether the effects of French linguistic protectionism will have any noticeable effect outside the French-speaking community. However, the debate surrounding the need for monitoring the English used by international air traffic controllers bears witness to the fact that the political aspects concerning the validity of the “new Englishes” may have more far-reaching consequences. The reaction of individual citizens to the growth of English use will probably be based on their own subjective criteria. Those who can speak English and benefit from its use will probably view the language positively. Those who cannot may take a negative view and even express hostility towards English users.
An issue in relation to the global spread of English in education is that some educationalists find evidence to support the view that learning at primary and secondary levels in languages that students have a poor command of. So, English-medium teaching might sound a good idea but could actually leave some at a disadvantage. What do the studies show about this?
In this essay it was highlighted how English is being used increasingly by non-native speakers for numerous reasons. Where it is used as a “second” language, it enjoys a “special status”, having been selected as an “official” language. These countries are also influenced by the role of English as the global lingua franca, the principal motivating factor behind the spread of English as a “foreign language”. It was then shown how such an increase in the use of English affects both the English language and the languages with which it comes into contact, how it provokes different socio-political reactions according to different contexts and entails economic consequences.
Word Count: 1200
REFERENCES
Bisong, J. (1995) ‘Language choice and cultural imperialism: a Nigerian perspective’, ELT Journal, vol.49, no.2, pp.122-32
Bourne, J. (2007) in Mercer, N. Swann, J. Mayor, B. (2007), Learning English, London, Routledge/Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp.189-216
Crystal D. (2002) in Graddol, D. Leith, D. Swann, J. Rhys, M. Gillen J. (2007), Changing English, London, Routledge/Milton Keynes, The Open University, pp.29-33
Leith & Graddol (2007) in Graddol, D. Leith, D. Swann, J. Rhys, M. Gillen J. (2007) Changing English, London, Routledge/Milton Keynes, The Open University, p.83
Nelson G. (1999), ‘Lingua Franca’, (Accessed on March 20th 2011)
Trask R.L (2000), ‘Dictionary of English Grammar’ Penguin Books Ltd., UK
