The fourth and final stage is the Formal Operational stage or adolescence and adulthood, in this stage the individual is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning, although there is a tendency toward egocentric thought early in this period. (Ken R. Wells, 2003; W. Huitt, 1999; Rebecca Kodat, 2002).
L. Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. (Learning Theories, 2008).
According to Vygotsky’s theory the potential for cognitive development depends upon the ‘Zone of Proximal Development,’ or (ZPD), a level of development attained when children engage in social interaction/behaviour. (Learning Theories, 2008; L. Vygotsky, 1978)
‘In contrast to Piaget’s understanding of child development in which development necessarily precedes learning, Vygotsky believed social learning precedes development.’ (Learning Theories, 2008).
‘Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people, (interpsychological), and then inside the child, intrapsychological.’ (L. Vygotsky, 1978).
Vygotsky focused on the connections between individuals and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact, Vygotsky believed that humans utilise tools such as speech and writing to mediate their social environments; initially children merely utilised such tools to utilise as social functions, and to communicate needs but the internalization of such tools led to higher thinking skills. (Learning Theories, 2008).
The basic concepts of Vygotsky’s view on Cognitive development are that learning occurs most naturally and efficiently when we participate in authentic social activities, such activities lead to a process Vygotsky termed enculturation, which means that human learning presupposes a specific social nature and a process by which children grow into and inhabit the intellectual life around them. (L. Vygotsky, 1978).
Vygotsky believed that by enculturation the children will eventually inhabit another process termed scaffolding which means providing support so that students can complete a task they perhaps could not have completed alone then gradually removing support as students’ competence increases. (L. Vygotsky, 1978).
Part 2: Evaluation of Theories of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s structuralist approach to child development has given psychologists many insights into the qualities and limitations of child thought, one of the major strengths of Piaget’s theory is that he accounted for both biological and environmental factors in the development of cognitive intelligence; these factors were, maturation of the brain and interaction with the environment. (Keiron Walsh, 2008).
While Piaget’s theory provides psychologists and teachers with a detailed description of development stages some argue that it does not provide sufficient explanation and that concepts are vague, research has demonstrated that children possess many of the cognitive abilities mentioned at much earlier ages than Piaget portrayed. Researchers have discovered that Vygotsky’s methodology of social engagement/interaction and the continual assessment of different styles of teaching were far more likely to yield positive results. (Grahame Hill, 2001).
Furthermore Piaget seemed to over estimate an individuals supposed formal operational ability as research has suggested that merely one third of the population within western society reach this stage, in many ways civilisation and humanity has progressed in some ways and regressed in others with such speed in recent years that such cognitive developmental ideals are in many ideologies difficult to incorporate. (Grahame Hill, 2001; Ken R. Wells, 2003).
Part 3: Studies that Support Theories of Cognitive Development
Gibson & Walk 1960
One of the most relevant studies of infant perception was conducted by Gibson and Walk in 1960, Gibson and Walk developed a piece of apparatus known as the visual cliff which was essentially a platform on which babies were placed, the whole platform was covered with a sheet of thick glass though one side was very much lower than the other.
Although it was safe Gibson and Walk noted that infants of crawling age were reluctant to crawl on the deep side of the visual cliff whereas they would quite happily go on to the shallow side, they concluded from this that infant depth perception was innate.
As the infants at the time were merely six months old it was uncertain as to whether this was a valid conclusion or something that could have been learnt as opposed to the inherited ability to perceive it. (Nicky Hayes, 1994).
Bower 1972
Bower presented very young infants with two different kinds of objects, one of them only just out of reach and the other one twice as far away but twice the size therefore representing the same retinal image; Bower found that infants would reach for the closer object twice as often as they did for the further one which suggested that their was some innate component within infants for depth perception. (Nicky Hayes, 1994).
Field 1976
A similar experiment was conducted which compared infants of two and five months old, they were offered objects at variable distances, some within reach, some just out of reach and others which were at some distance; the objects were also of variable size and carefully arranged to produce the identical retinal image. It was found that the two months old infants would reach out indiscriminately, regardless of distance whereas the five month old infants tended to reach for objects that were closer, implying that their additional experience had assisted them in defining their depth perception. (Nicky Hayes, 1994).
Piaget’s test for the Conservation of Liquid
The child is shown two identical beakers and agrees that they contain the same amount of liquid, the contents of one of the beakers is then poured into another beaker which is taller but narrower. Although the child has seen the liquid being poured and agrees that none has been added or spilled in the process, ‘Piaget calls this identity,’ when asked if one beaker contains more or if the two have identical quantities the pre-operational child typically says that the taller beaker contains more. (Richard Gross, Rob McIlveen, 2000).
Part 4: Critical Evaluation of Studies that Support Theories of Cognitive Development
Although both Piaget, Vygotsky and other psychological theorists orchestrated various studies to support their theories of cognitive development it must be argued that many of the experiments were flawed and do not give conclusive proof of any of the dependent variables.
Children are invariably victims of their environment; their abilities are at some level dependent upon their psychological and physical characteristics both imposed by parental guidance, interaction and genetics.
For whatever reason children often don’t perform to the best of their ability and lack any true understanding of problem solving and/or constructive language. (Richard Gross, Rob McIlveen, 2000).
‘Piaget tended to focus on logical and mathematical thought development neglecting other developments such as memory and social abilities etc. These may account for the wide individual differences between children; it is believed that in many of Piaget’s experiments children may have given answers they believed Piaget wanted to hear rather than the answers they believed to be correct.’ (The Development of Thinking, 2001).
Hughes, McGarrigle and Donaldson have shown that by using different methods children can achieve more advanced cognitive responses at an earlier age than Piaget predicted, they believed that Piaget’s experiments were too complex, utilised clinical interview techniques which were time consuming and used language the child was unable to relate to; therefore the children were often confused and tired potentially giving some negative and unreliable data. (The Development of Thinking, 2001).
Piaget did adapt his early theories to take account of early criticism; he believed and hoped that his work would one day be integrated with other theories in order to produce a rounded view of child development. (The Development of Thinking, 2001).
Piaget provoked considerable follow up research, over the years this has added significantly to our understanding of child development, Piaget’s work has influenced educational policies and stimulated additional research into child development.
‘Each time one prematurely teaches a child something he could have discovered for himself, that child is kept from inventing it and consequently from understanding it completely.’ (Piaget 1960; The development of Thinking, 2001).
Vygotsky’s greatest contribution was in recognising the importance of social interaction in the cognitive development of children, whereas Piaget interpreted through various studies that children regardless of culture should make the same level of progression through his developmental stages; Vygotsky believed there would be significant cultural differences and established a more sociological approach, however both psychological theorists gained support in latter research and educational directives. (The Development of Thinking, 2001).
‘Vygotsky emphasises the role of social interaction in teaching and this is where his greatest contribution has been. Effective teachers are those with more knowledge than the child and can include peers. Teachers need to provide scaffolding and be able to adjust the level of assistance they provide depending upon the progress of the child.’ (The Development of Thinking, 2001).
References:
Rebecca Kodat 2002 Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development accessed on the 06th January 2011
Learning Theories 2008 Social Development Theory accessed on the 06th January 2011
Patient Teaching 1990 Piaget’s Cognitive stages accessed on the 06th January 2011
J Bruner 1986 Cognitive Development accessed on the 06th January 2011
Ken R. Wells 2003 Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development 2003 accessed on the 06th January 2011
W. Huitt 1999 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, Powerpoint Tool accessed on the 07th January 2011
L. Vygotsky 1978 Mind in Society: The Development of Psychological Processes
Keiron Walsh 2008 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development accessed on the 07th January 2011
Grahame Hill 2001 AS Psychology
Nicky Hayes 1994 Foundations of Psychology
The Society Pages 2011 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Experiments with Children accessed on the 07th January 2011
The Development of Thinking 2001 Cognition and Development accessed on the 07th January 2011
Richard Gross, Rob McIlveen, 2000 Psychology a New Introduction for ‘A’ Level
Bibliography:
Advameg Incorporation 2011 Cognitive Development: Encyclopaedia of Children’s Health accessed on the 06th January 2011
Harper Collins Publishers Ltd 2009 Psychology A2 for AQA A Fourth Edition
Richard Gross 2005 Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour Fifth Edition
Gary Wheadon Access to Higher Education Page
