Pull: Recently, multi-national development in cities offers regular employment in factories for some, so they can support their families. Better opportunities and education for their children, for example education, and also, city entertainment.
Problems: Unemployment, due to too few jobs and also insufficient housing for all the people, so many live in slums, whilst a few live in expensive houses. Without regular wages, people have to build their own houses with no drains or piped water, leading to disease. People work for very little, and so they can’t live on one person’s salary, and children have to work instead of learn. There are also crime problems.
14. Bangladesh shanty towns
Problems: In shanty towns there is no electricity, water, or sewers, people live in 6m2 per family, so they are cramped and uncomfortable. People earn very little, and eat ½ of what is average in the world, there are insufficient resources, and ½ people are below the poverty line. Diseases spreads quickly as there is no spare space, or refuse collecting. Birth rate is high so the problem gets worse.
Improvements: Governments, funding from charities, and money from the World Bank has allowed the government to buy the land, basic building materials, water, sewage systems, and provide some electricity. This has allowed local people to build single storey homes, with basic amenities, and in some areas, roads, clinics and even schools. With an organised infrastructure, conditions begin to improve. The Bangladesh Rehabilitation Scheme provides families with travel expenses, 3 moths food supply, micro cr3edit facilities, etc if they will return to their villages. The Ideal Village Project gives training and looms, and also housing. The Krishi Bank provides loans and shelters to those returning to the villages. Under the Back to Home Project, 20000 families have returned to villages, and the government has strengthened rural economies.
15. Sierra Leone population problems
Location: West Africa, with a 4.5 million population, at an annual growth rate of 2.6%.
Why? Birth rate is high, 48%, because women marry young, they have low status, only 11% are literate and so they know little about birth control. Culturally, and economically, it is considered an asset to have 7 children to provide for you when you are old, and 1/3 children die before they are 1 year old. Health services are poorly developed.
Solutions: The government are trying to tackle this problem by family planning services and healthcare in rural areas through the Planned Parenthood Association. 1190 Population Concerns, a project, educates women about contraception and healthcare., through training respected villagers to educate, and administer healthcare. This has helped 10,000 people, through the training of 150 villagers.
16. Sweden population decrease
Problem: There is an increasing population imbalance, as there are too few births and death rate is low. Fewer people run the economy, and older people are living longer and retiring earlier.
Solutions: Guest workers from Southern Europe, Africa and Asia, are welcomed. People are encourage to have more children through family allowances for children in education, allowance bonuses for 3rd and subsequent children, enforced maintenance from absent parents, 4 months paid maternity leave before birth, and 1yr after birth (and another 6 months without job loss,) and day-care facilities for all children from 18 months to school age.
17. China Population Policies
Problem: Before 1960, large families were encouraged, and it was realised that the rate of population growth could not be sustained.
Policy: In 1979, a one child policy was enforced by loss of benefits, propaganda, fines, abortions, and sterilisation. One child families were rewarded through child care and other incentives.
Successes: 1986 – 83% families had 1 child, overall fertility rate was 1.9, rural areas became more prosperous.
Failures: 1986 – Rural areas, 62% had 1 child, as they had become richer and were willing to pay fines, so the government compromised and allowed them to have a second child if the first was a girl. Female babies were often killed. Strict rules caused unrest and violated human rights. Age imbalance due to too few workers.
18. Mexico to USA immigration
Mexico: High birth rate (27 per 1000,) people are poor, infant mortality rates are high, and 36% population are under 15 years old.
Push: Food provision problems, and land is too poor for farming. Weather often brings floods and droughts, making it hard to earn a living. 80% people have no clean water, and 50% children leave school before they are 11.
Pull: Advertising leads to ‘Coca Cola’ image, and Los Angles (250km away) is considered the ‘City of Opportunity,’ where one can earn more in a month than they could in a year in Mexico. Seasonal work (cotton, fruit, vegetable picking and processing.) Work is shorter hours and better paid. Other Mexican people and communities are a big incentive.
Results: Richer, more skilled people are more likely to move, leaving Mexico with a poorer workforce.
19. Amazon Rainforest
Location: 8 million km2 between Brazil and Peru
Mining: Lead, Bauxite, Copper and Tin are rich and are exported world-wide, there are also, oil, natural gas and uranium deposits. These are all mined, by women, men and children for low pay, and leave an ugly scar on the rainforest.
Rubber: This does not damage the rainforest, but is sustainable, it works in balance.
Cattle Ranching; From 1960s, this is the biggest reason for deforestation, because the land is free, even though it is infertile and acidic, modern methods are used, and farms are 15,00 0 hectares.
Logging: Only 1 or 2 trees may be taken per hectare, and for every 1 tree felled, 20 more are damaged, as they are knocked down or dragged. However, the wood is good expensive wood. Deforestation has many effects, including loss of culture.
Reduction: More reserves and national parks preserve land, and land reform in other areas, relieves pressure. International loans to Brazil allow Brazil to control forestry. Emillio manages an area sustainable, every tree cut down in replaced, and only small strips are deforested, which allow reseeding. Oxen are used for transportation as they cause less damage, and all the wood is used, producing 250 cubic metres of wood per hectare (compared with average 3-5.)
20. African Fuelwood Crisis
Problem: 131.4 million people rely on 197 million cubic metres of fuelwood, but this is not enough to go round. As local supplies dwindle, people spend more and more time searching for fuelwood. In Tanzania, each family does the equivalent of 200-300 days labour.
Causes: Increasing drought means fewer trees, and political decisions such as state ownership mean it is not managed well. The forest declines as the soil is lost and compacted, and the land becomes useless, so there is less food, so young people move away, leading to rural desolation. Only the rich can afford other fuels, this threatens the way of life.
Solutions: The El Ain forest management project of Sudan uses many good solutions. Villagers are trained in tree planting, and advised on how to legally own land, sustainable plans are made for the future. Community forest projects are begun. Soil and water conservation techniques are devised. Increased research and aid.
21. Impact of changing energy on Holmewood in North Derbyshire
Problem: When the NE Derbyshire pit closed, 2299 mining jobs were lost, and other jobs were lost in related areas such as Iron, Steel, Chemicals, Engineering and railway industry. For every mining job lost, another 50 jobs were lost. Male youth unemployment became very high. Poor housing and derelict landscape left the area unattractive to industries, as there are waste heaps, pollution, subsidence and other problems. Depression, divorce, and poor health are all negative effects.
Reasons: Pit closure led to closure of suppliers, and closure of local services, these job losses lowered community wealth, and people moved to find work, leaving social problems, making the area unattractive to investors. Crime is high, and there is an ageing population left.
Solutions: Local Authorities use grants and enterprise zones, with improved infrastructure, M1 links, no rates to pay for 10 years, fast track administration and paying. This has led to a growing industrial estate, and housing has been bought by commuters.
22. South Korea A Newly Industrialising Country
Background: Population of 45 million, with a population density of 453 people per km2
1953 Korea is war wrecked after fighting China and Japan. War ends and Korea has a small peasant orientated economy
1950 Koreas recieves economic aid from USA, a military regime governs the country, infringing human rights rules, but through careful planning, and the hardwork of the people (long hours, low pay) industry increases
1987 Better living standards, and new industries attracted
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Korea is 1st Computer memory chips, 2nd Ship building, 3rd Textiles, 5th cars, 6th steel supplier in the world
Example 1969 Promotion Law allows Gold Star to develop into a large firm. Workers work long hours for low pay, and only 5 days annual leave, but they have colleges, advice centres, facilities and special areas. Many companies invest overseas too.
Effects: There are better career prospects, increased wealth, and people live a more luxurious lifestyle as consumers, buying more. GNP increases. However, working conditions are still noisy, dangerous and unpleasant. There is pollution in rivers, smog, and land fills.
23. Real Aid in the Gambia
Background: Agriculture is very important as 75% people live in rural areas. Crop growing is considered a woman’s occupation. Gambia can’t afford to import or develop, but it is ideal for agriculture with a large river for irrigation, and a warm climate.
Unsuitable aid: The British Colonial Development Corporation spent £628,000 on chickens. However, the food couldn’t grow in the Gambia, so the birds starved and people went hungry, then in 1950, foul typhoid kills nearly 50% of the birds.
Suitable aid: The present agricultural policy is too increase food and cash crop production, encouraging a variety of farming whilst conserving soil fertility and increasing foreign earnings. The United Nations introduced the Horticultural Improvement Scheme which helped women to work together so they could afford more seeds, tools, irrigation systems, and storage systems. The Sukuta project encourages group work which is financed by the Islamic Bank, and Monitored by the Gambia union. Programmes of teaching, healthcare, employment and staff are implicated.
24. Agribusiness in East Anglia
Conditions: Virtually all land is flat, necessary for machinery, and below 107m. It receives 600mm rainfall per year, with a low January temperature of 4°C, to break up soil and kill pests, and a high July temperature of 17°C, to ripen crops. It has an 8 month growing season and 4.5 sunshine hours. Soil is heavy in silt. There are large cities to provide the small workforce needed.
Farm: 600km from Cambridge, owned by a large London Business, specialising in 60% wheat, 20% barley, 20% oil seed. Accounts are carefully kept, and growth is monitored. Scientific methods are used, and there are 3 workers to 500 hectares, but crop yields are still very high. Fields are large and fenced, the EU buy all unsold harvest.
25. Traditional Kenyan Farming
Location: Kenya is in Africa, it has a population density of 56 people per km2, and a 25% urban population, with a 78% agricultural population, and the life expectancy is 61 years. The wettest area is the South near coast, and in the direst area is the north.
Nomadic: Nomadic herding is important, animals are moved around due to rainfall to prevent overgrazing.
Kikuyu tribes remove trees and bushes from the fertile land, then move on.
Masai tribe move to areas of fertile land for their cattle, and high rainfall for grass
Plantation: Owned by European and American large companies which grow and export tea, (15% countries income) coffee and cotton, which can’t be grown in the Northern hemisphere. Kenyan families can’t afford to normally, as it takes 3yrs to produce the 1st crop, but lots of workers are needed to pick, prune and pack the tea.
Developing: Land Transfer Programme splits the large white owned farms into African smallholdings, and improves methods, and gives loans.
Mixed Irrigation Scheme involves farmers growing rice, each family has own land, and are given loans. National Irrigation Board provided houses, and schools.
Kibrigue Farmer owns their land, and uses traditional tools, regular training on new techniques is given.
Katilu United Nations Scheme involves farmers producing rice and selling it to the market, each running their own plots.
26. Green Revolution in India
What? A scientific approach to farming, using fertilisers and High Yielding Variety crops
Advantages: Rice and wheat production increases, with 20kg of fertiliser wheat production is 40,000 tonnes, with 30kg of fertiliser, rice production is 55,000 tonnes. These yield increase food production, leading to a food surplus, which can be sold. There are bigger and fewer farms.
Disadvantages: There are more landless peasants who can’t afford the big farms, and can’t pay back loans for land and equipment. Pesticides are very expensive, taking much money. Smaller farms are sold to pay back money, to the large farms, so the wealthy have got richer, smaller farms have lost all.
27. Aral Sea Disaster
Location: Syrdarya and Amundayrya rivers flow into the Aral Sea in Kazakstan and Uzebikistan. It is the 4th largest sea, salty and shallow, in the world. The area has a desert climate, average 23°C temperature, and only 100mm rain.
Causes: Excessive irrigation by rice farmers, through dams and canals, water has been lost through evaporation, deadly fertilisers have led to eutrophication. Water consumption has not been monitored, under communism people couldn’t complain.
Effects: The sea level has fallen 15m, and has shrunk 801m from the previous shoreline. Eutrophication means 83% children are ill, 4/38s fish are left, there is no drinking water, wells and puddles are contaminated so people get ill. No fish means there are no jobs, so people’s livelihoods are gone, people are upset and have left. Previous fishing villages, are now miles away from the sea, and the ships are stranded. Salt which is left after evaporation is blown on to crops and livestock, killing them.
Future: Reduced irrigation, or improved irrigation with less thirsty crop types (Tajikstan 19) being used, and charging farmers for water. Underground reservoirs may be used, or water transferred from rivers, or melting glaciers.
28. Mount Pintabo Eruption June 1991
Location: Located in the Philippines, on the destructive plate boundary between the Eurasion and Philippines plate, where the Philippines plate is sinking under the Eurasion plate.
Short term Evacuation of 15,000. Clouds of ash turned day to night as 50cm fell on farmland. Eruptions for several days with earthquakes and torrential rain full of ash, led to 200,000 homes, hospitals, schools and factories to collapsing. For 3 weeks power supplies were cut off, and roads and bridges became unusable.
Long term Thick ash ruined the harvest and made planting impossible, 1million farm animals dies through starvation and drinking contaminated water. 6 people died directly, 600 by disease and 70 were suffocated by Lahors (ash flows.) 100s of families moved for food and shelter. Monsoon rains caused flooding. Ash blocked the sun’s heat globally, lowering world temperatures.
29. San Francisco Earthquake 1989 & the 1906
Location: San Francisco is located along the west coast of the USA, on the fault lines above the Santa Cruz mountains.
Causes: The Pacific Plate and the North American plate slide past each other at the San Andreas Fault. An earthquakes occurs when the rocks lock, the pressure builds up behind them, then they spring apart suddenly, sending shock waves throughout.
Effects: Many buildings collapsed, for example an office block (killing 6 people.) Houses in the Marina Cruz District were over 75 years old, and many collapsed or were burnt after a gas mains ruptured. 6,000 people were left homeless, many were unemployed as their workplaces were destroyed, for example in Silicon Valley. Many people were trapped and died. Communications went down, as major roads such as the Interstate Route 880 collapsed, killing 81 people, trapping 52 vehicles. The Bay Area Rapid Transit Railway closed, and the Bay Bridge collapsed. These injured and disrupted life greatly. People were also injured by falling debris. Insurance companies and the local government struggled with the costs of repairing the city, but as it is an MEDC, preparation beforehand and immediate aid minimised damage, such the 62,000 spectators of the International Baseball gam, who all survived.
30. Coastal erosion at Holderness and Mapleton North Yorkshire
Causes: Geology – Cliffs are soft glacial till, sand and clay, which is easily eroded, they are unconsolidated, and slip and slump when wet.
Waves – Winds blowing from the North Sea mean long fetch and strong winds lead to very damaging waves, and the material, due to the coastal shape, is moved out to sea, instead forming a beach to protect the coastline.
Sea levels – As these rise, the waves are more damaging.
Groynes – Bournemouth groynes have reduced beach material protection
Effects: 1m per year rate of coastal erosion, 50,000 m3/yr mud, and 250,000 m3/yr sand. This means many people have had to leave their homes and livelihoods. The lifeboat and pilot headquarters are being eroded, this is dangerous and could be bad for industry and shipping. Further up the coast, at Easington, the gas terminal is being eroded.
Solutions: Sea walls of resistant rock to reduce cliff erosion, rock grones to trap beach material, metal revetment posts to reduce wave energy or letting nature take its course, are all solutions being considered.
Hydrological Cycle – The continuous cycle of water between the oceans. atmosphere and land
Definitions
Evaporation: Water returned to atmosphere as water vapour (gas)
Ground water: Water flowing across the ground surface (when frozen or saturated)
Impermeable: Rocks that don’t allow water to flow through them
Infiltration: Water movement through the soil, this is effected by precipitation, temperature, previous rainfall, and the distance between the surface and the rock.
Interception: Water is stopped before reaching the soil or river by vegetation, concrete etc, precipitation, plant type and quantity, and surface type and quantity, effect this
Percolation: Water flowing through the rock, this effected by infiltration and rock permeability
Permeable: Rocks that allow water to flow through them
Precipitation: Water falling to the Earth’s surface as rain, snow, hail sleet etc
Run off: Water moving across the land in the form of a river or stream
Surface storage: Water is stored in a lake, or sea
Throughflow: Water flowing through the rock
Transpiration: Water vapour given off by plants, effected by temperature, precipitation, amount of plants and type of plants
Effect of development
Development increases interception due to increased buildings, and impermeable surfaces, and also garden plants have broader leaves. As interception increases infiltration decreases as less water reaches the soil, this means there is less percolation. People use more water too, so the water table decreases and nearby streams and rivers have lower water levels. However, there is a greater flooding risk because through drainage systems and increased surface run off then the water reaches the rivers faster.
Rivers, Lakes and that sort of stuff (water!)
Definitions
Confluence: The point where two or more rivers meet (the main river and its tributary)
Meander: Bend in the river
Mouth: Where the river meets the sea or lake
River basin: The area of land which is drained by a river
Slip off slope: Sand and shingle is deposited on the inside of a bend where there is slower current
Source: Where the river begins, normally at a spring, pool or similar
Tributary: A smaller stream which flows into the main river
Undercutting: This occurs on the outside of a meander, where the current is faster
Watershed: The land which separates two river basins, it is higher, and marks the boundaries
Upper course - This is the river near the source, it has steep valley sides, a small stream, and an uneven stream bed. It has little energy to erode with because it is only small, and so most of the river is in contact with the banks or the air. It flows slower because it has less energy. Vertical erosion (downwards) occurs.
Medium course - It has a gentler valley, and the river winds across the small, flat, valley floor. In flood it erodes more because it has more energy.
Lower course – It has a wide flat valley, and a large river, with large bends, called meanders, these may form into oxbow lakes. Lateral erosion (sideways) occurs.
Higher gradient = Faster river
Deeper river = less friction = Faster river
Wide river = less friction = Faster river
Centre of river = Less friction = Faster flow
Erosion in a river
Corrasion / Abrasion Particles of rock are transported, and thrown against the banks and bed, knocking away more rock and so eroding, mainly down
Hydraulic Action River water travelling very fast has enough energy to wear the channel away by its sheer force
Solution / Corrosion Water may dissolve soluble rock of its channel, for example, if the rock is limestone (Calcium Carbonate)
Attrition River particles knock against each other, breaking bits off each other, so they become smaller and more rounded
Features
V-shaped valleys River floods, and transports material, material cuts downwards, the vertical erosion occurs when heavy rain causes weathering, so this is slower, leading to a valley with interlocking spurs.
Pot holes A stone gets trapped in a hollow on a stream bed, and is whirled around by the force of the water, deepening the hole
Waterfalls Soft rock is eroded, and hard rock is undercut, the hard rock collapses, and the plunge pool deepens, and the waterfall recedes. Another way is if a pot hole becomes deep, and rock is eroded and recedes, or an earthquake fault.
Meanders Fastest flow round a bend is on the outside, and here material is eroded, on the inside, material is deposited, this pushes the bend outwards. In an area where there are two bends, this means the bends become closer, and join to form an OX-BOW lake, the old river course is cut off, and used during flood time. Eventually it becomes covered in vegetation.
Transportation
Suspension Transport: Fine light material is held in suspension, last to de deposited
Erosion: Rubs against the bank, wearing it away
Large boulders Transport: Rolled along the bed
Erosion: Boulders collide and break up
Solution Transport: Carried in solution
Erosion: Material is dissolved
Small rocks Transport: Small stones and pebbles ‘bounce’ along the bed
Erosion: Break down in size
Flooding
Heavy precipitation – Raises water levels in the river, then the ground becomes saturated, and so there is run off directly into the river, causing flash floods
Compacted soil – This is impermeable, as it sun baked soil, or frozen soil, so water runs directly into the river and can cause flash flooding
Surface storage – When water is held locked, as in snow on mountains, and then melts, water levels increase which can lead to flooding
Hydrograph
Measures water level in streams (discharge) of the volume of water passing a given
point in a river at any time The maximum discharge is called the ‘peak discharge,’ and the difference between this and the peak rainfall is called the lag time. The time is along the bottom in hours, and on the y axis, there is rainfall (mm) and discharge (cumecs.) The hydrograph compares rainfall and discharge.
Factors affecting location
- Resources
- Access
- Market
- Land availability
- Retail
- Energy source
- Competition
- Labour source
- Land
- Transport links
18th Century – Hydro power was important, so fast flowing rivers were needed
19th Century – Location of coal field for steam energy and water were most important
Now – Human and economic factors are most important, need good transport links
Site – The area of land where something is located
Situation – Where something is in relation to other human factors
Raw material orientated Industry – Economically it has to be located close to the raw material sources as they are expensive to transport eg glass making at St Helens
High-technology industries – Industries which sell electronic goods, they don’t need much power, have no bulky raw materials, or bulky products, moved by road, low labour force, require skilled workers, require a large factory. SO . . . can be located nearly anywhere.
Types
City Centre – Shopping and commercial centre, is accessible, with the biggest and largest stores because only they can afford the high land prices. There are specialist high order goods, such as furniture and jewellery shops. There are comparison stores, such as clothes and shoes, and some smaller shops, such as bakers, eg Queensgate
Corner Shops – From 19th Century, before transport, so the stores were convenience dtores. They foster a community spirit, and are open long and irregular hours. eg Vimmels
Secondary Centres – These line the roads, where land is cheaper, there is parking, better accessibility, and more traffic, they rely on impulse buying, types include car show rooms, petrol stations, convenience stores such as newsagents, and specialist stores such as florists and takeaways. Eg Bretton Centre
Suburban Shopping Parades – Near modern housing estates, limited car parking, convenience stores and small chain stores such as Spar, Specialist stores such as chemists and bakers, travel not necessarily necessary eg Serpentine Green
High Order Goods – Comparison, luxury and specialist goods
Middle Order Goods – Convenience stores
Low Order Goods – Convenience goods
The area from which a shop or settlement attracts people is called its sphere of influence an area with its own sphere of influence is called a central place the minimum number of people needed to support a place is called the threshold population. Expensive, rarely bough goods are called high order goods, cheaper, often bought goods are called low order goods.
Changes
Why – Population have moved to suburbs, and now have more mobility. They have cars, they can afford to bulk buy, as they have more money, monthly pay, freezers and less free time. Shopping hours have been extended to 7 days a week, women work and longer news. Better roads and railway mean good accessibility which is good for shoppers and deliveries, leading to edge of city locations. There is less space in the outer city, so the edge of city is used for good accessibility and room.
CBD – Increase in covered shopping area with a weather shield and less distance to travel. Large hardware stores have moved out, building societies, cafes, estate agents, clothes shops & supermarkets have moved in.
Inner city – Corner shops removed due to redevelopment and goods being too expensive, some corner shops specialise in ethnic foods, DIY shops along main roads going into the centre, where there were previously factories or terraced housing sites.
Edges of Urban Areas- Major developments on cheap, unused land outside the city, there are also bigger stores with more variety. There is good accessibility, more space for expansion, cheap land, sand a workforce.
Development is how rich and industrialised a country is, and the life quality of its inhabitants. One way of measuring it is through Gross Domestic Product, which equals the value of goods produced, plus the services provided, divided by the number of people in the country. Other ways are: % jobs per sector, amount and value of trade, number of births per 1000, number of deaths per 1000, Infant Mortality rate, number of people per doctor, or literacy rate. Physical Quality of Life Index is another measure, which was compiled in the 1980s and looks at literacy rates, life expectancy and infant mortality. The Human Development Index looks at population’s combined income, life expectancy, and education. However, these do not consider the rights and freedom of the people. Gross National Product is the total of all money produced per year by a country’s workers.
Definitions
Bilateral Aid: Direct aid from the government from 1 country to another with certain conditions
Multinational Aid: Money given to world organisations eg world bank, who decide how to spend it
Primary goods: Raw materials mainly produced by the poorer South, prices fluctuating, and dropping as crops and minerals are overproduced, demand is declining, rival producers sell the products cheaper, and sources are used, in LEDCs over 50% population are employed in them (eg Nigeria, Kenya, India and Bangladesh)
Quotas: Limiting specifications on imported goods, helps LEDCs to become richer.
Secondary goods: Processed products, produced by the wealthier North, prices increasing.
Tariffs: Taxes paid on imports, helps LEDCs to become richer.
Tertiary goods: Services, in MEDCs over 50% population are employed in them (eg Japan, UK, France and USA)
Trade Blocs: Countries join to improve trading links, eliminate custom taxes, and lower prices, helps LEDCs to become richer.
Trade deficit: Country gets less money from exports than it spends on imports.
Trade surplus: Country gets more money from exports than it spends on imports.
Voluntary Aid: Money collected by charities such as Oxfam who decide how to spend it
As countries become MEDC primary numbers decrease as machinery takes over many of the jobs, secondary jobs initially increase because the people who previously worked in primary transfer to secondary. However, as these goods begin to be imported than they are not needed. More people live in cities so tertiary industries increase and the government has more money to spend on healthcare and education.
Development stages
Rostow proposed a model for economic growth:
- Traditional society – Primary employment with no money for secondary industries and poor transport
- Pre-conditions for take off – Aid allows raw material exportation. Few processing industries and transport network beginnings
- Take off – Rapid growth in manufacturing as money is available for technology. Transport services improve and a core region develops.
- Drive to maturity – Less primary jobs, economic growth nationally, and urbanisation. More technology.
- Age of high mass consumption – Less manufacturing and more tertiary growth.
Rich countries give aid, factories are built in poor countries, and poor countries earn money, most buy machinery and spare parts in rich country, and poor countries stay poor.
Interdependence
Developed countries export manufactured processed goods which are imported by less developed countries, which export raw materials and agricultural goods, which are imported by developed countries. However, LEDCs have problems if they are over reliant on a small number of products because if the crop fails they have no exports.
Definitions
Arable Crops are grown
Pastoral Livestock is reared – Found in North West because cool summers (13°C), mild winters (4°C), heavy precipitation (2000mm) and strong winds. Land is highland with poor soil, so sheep are often on open moors. There is less money limiting transport, and fewer markets
Mixed Both crops and animals – Areas of variable soil quality or mixed reliefs.
Dairy Found in West as cows need long grass, requiring fertile land, moderate climate (S-14°C, W-5°C), and moderate precipitation (950mm.) Land needs to be flat. Must be fairly flat as cattle struggle with steep slopes. SW
Hill farming Takes place on the hills, climate is not a problem so occurs in North, but does not make much money, so is in cheap land, which is rainy, (2000mm,) and cold (W-2°C S-13°C.) NW or NE
Wheat Need warm summer temperatures (15°C+) and dry conditions (750mm and less,) require use of large machinery so flat land is essential. SE
Barley Need summer temperatures of 13°C+ and rainfall less than 850mm, flat land essential for machinery. SE
Potatoes Need rainfall less than 900mm, winters not too cold flat land preferable for machinery. SE
Physical Inputs: Climate, Precipitation and soil
Human Inputs: Buildings, vaccines, and animal breeds
Processes: Grazing, lambing, shearing and silage
Hazards: Foot and mouth, extreme climate, and disease
Outputs: Lambs, lamb, wool
Dairy farming
After WWII Dairy farmers were encouraged to produce more milk as there were food shortages,
Also Britain wanted to be more self sufficient. The government helped dairy farmers by offering
Subsidies, fixed milk prices, tariffs and loans. Improvements in accessibility with refrigerated transportation have allowed faster transportation, and so the products keep for longer in the shops. Technological developments such as computerised milking equipment have made milking easier and more effective. Improved animal feeds, breeds and vaccinations, increase milk yield. Artificial treatment methods mean milk can be stored for longer. Increased farming research.
Now Dairy farmers have many problems because people are eating healthier products and using more artificial methods so they consume healthier foods. The EU has imposed a quota on the amount of milk the milk marketing board can produce. They have also imposed quality controls, so farmers can’t sell all their milk, so many have had to sell their herds. Foot and mouth has destroyed many herds.
Agribusiness
This is agricultural business, farming to make the maximum profit. They are owned by rich companies who can afford more land, they produce less variety of crops, and specialise in arable farming. Operated by a manager as employing one person is cheaper, profit is about 10x that of another farm, Scientific methods increase crop yield, and they can afford to buy in bulk. Workers are skilled. Tenant – Someone who rents the land, and gets the profit. Owner – Someone who owns the land, doesn’t pay a rent and gets all the profit. Farm manager – Doesn’t own the land, but is paid a salary. High yields increase food production, keep costs low, money for wages, and landowners make money. However, overproduction is a problem, high unemployment in the countryside and damages the environment.
EC Farming
Previously . . Farmers wanted to destroy hedgerows to remove pests and widen fields, so since 1947, 15,000 km hedgerows have been destroyed. Common Agricultural Policy was introduced to encourage farmers to produce more by buying surplus at a set price, so even when demand is low, farmers still receive a good price. They provided financial incentives, resulting in larger fields, hedgerow removal, less agricultural workers, self sufficiency, high administration costs, and surpluses. Fertiliser and pesticide use has grown as a way of increasing crop yield. Fertiliser usage has led to eutrophication.
- Fertiliser is added to the field, and leached into the rivers
- Nitrate and slurry in the river cause increased plant growth and an algal bloom
- Algae have short lives and die quickly, increasing waste, which increases aerobic bacteria
- Aerobic bacteria decompose the plant matter, using the oxygen
- Fish die due to lack of oxygen, and this increased waste attracts anaerobic bacteria
- These are smelly, yucky, and spoil the water, making it horrible and generally gross!
However, now the EC is encouraging them to replant them because it reduces soil erosion, and crop wind destruction. Set aside is encouraged to reduce over production and make the land more fertile, this is often done on a rotational basis. Predators may help control pests in the set aside, and extra money is made. Diversification, for example, into tourism, is also encouraged.
Commercial farming – Farming to make a profit
Subsistence farming – Farming to make enough money to survive
Definitions:
Accessibility How well the transport system is built up
CBD Central Business District is the heart of the city, with tall buildings, and is the shopping and business centre
Form Shape – linear of round, compact or spread out, or is it formed round a green
Function What it does – Employment structure, Age structure, and building use
Growth Change over time – population, settlement, and services
Land use Function of an area of land, what it is used for in the settlement eg residential, historical, agricultural, transport, services, shops, religious, commercial, education, recreational, industrial or military
Rural Countryside and farms
Settlement Place where people live
Site The are of land something is built on: aspect (which way it faces,) relief (sloping or flat,) altitude (height above or below sea level,) geology (firm, or well drained,) water supply (free from flooding & water supply,) soil (fertile or infertile,) shelter (from the wind,) and space (room for expansion.)
Situation Position in relation to surroundings (eg major roads, railways, and towns.)
Urban Large settlements such as cities or towns with cathedrals, large populations, flats, shopping centres etc
Zones:
- Shops and offices – Located near the centre, built first, as they need to be accessible to as many people as possible. There is high competition, space is limited, and land is expensive
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19th Century Industry – Needs to be accessible for workers, and for getting products out by canal or road, land is expensive now but wasn’t when first developed, and was on the outskirts
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19th Century Housing – Built before transport, so people had to walk to work, so needed to be near industry, but not at the centre, poor surroundings and poor housing make property prices low. Land is quite expensive now, but wasn’t when it was built as it was on the outside
- Modern Industry – Found at the edge of the city where land is cheaper for expansion and initial costs, but needs good transport links for exporting goods, and for workers to get there
- Modern Housing – Built on the outside where only those who live there need to go, land prices are low so houses are spacious with large gardens and open space. They are built to house expanding populations
Within the CBD, expensive chain stores are in the centre as they can afford high land prices, and want to be accessible, as do head offices. There may be some luxury flats. Buildings are medium height. Similar, slightly cheaper stores surround this, then there are some residential areas and smaller non-chain stores. There are then convenience stores, clothing stores and entertainment establishments. From 500-600m there are still some convenience stores, more industry and much more residential areas. Industrial buildings are higher.
CBD changes:
19th Century Expansion – Houses built for workers within walking distance, many workers due to the Industrial Revolution, housing is terraced, cramped and poor quality
1920s Industrial Change – Industry collapsed due to age, competitions, limited expansion space, unattractive environment, and poor transport links. Houses became slum like and workers were unemployed, few facilities and a polluted environment
1960s till today – Housing has been improved to some extent but people have moved out of the CBD, leaving the poorest and oldest, so crime and suicide rates have gone up. Houses still have poor facilities, are small, with small gardens, and congestion is a problem, environment is poor.
Models
There are several models of urban land use. They are intended to be simplified representations of real life:
- Burgess Model – Centred around the CBD, is a dartboard pattern of circles: wholesale light manufacturing, low class residential, medium class residential areas, and high class residential areas. Buildings on the outside are more recent. BUT this only takes account of expansion and demand, it ignores intervention by governments such as slum clearance.
- Hoyts Sector Model - By Hoyt’s time public transport was very important, so his model is based around major transport lines from the CBD. Around these areas pie chart sectors of different types are found. BUT it ignores non-residential land such as industry, it emphasises economic factors and ignores people grouping
- Harris and Ulman Multiple Nuclei Model – They believed that there was more than one centre to the city. Newer more expensive housing is still found around the outside of the city, but this is broken up by sectors of industry, and other fors of new housing.
Green belt
This is a belt of land surrounding a city to try to reduce urban sprawl (unlimited city growth,) it tries to prevent neighbouring towns from merging, preserves farm land, and provides a recreational area. Development is only allowed in exceptional circumstances such M25 to London to decrease traffic problems, Science parks on poor ground, and housing estates instead of dereliction. However, it increases growth beyond the limits, and leads to derelict communities. It leads to commuting, causing more traffic problems, and the recreational areas are not accessible to all, also the land may not all be high quality.
Green Wedges
These are strips of land coming from the CBD, which widen, they do not encircle the city, and encompass only the better land. This solves many of the problems of the green belt, however, it can be less effective at reducing urban sprawl, and the land can become segmented by roads and gradually eaten away.
Flight from the cities
Overcrowding, congestion and crime in the inner cities has led to migration to the countryside. Traditional Industrial Towns lose people as industry closes. Better transport systems allow people to commute to work, and tourism is becoming more important, so people work in resorts. People move from the conurbations (cities, towns etc) to new towns and rural areas. Rural areas are considered peaceful, stable, with beautiful countryside and a good community atmosphere. However, often commuters are younger, richer, and travel more than the villagers, so the two don’t mix very well.
Rural Depopulation
In some areas, people don’t want to commute, but they can’t use their skills, so they move to urban areas, services are not supported as there are fewer people, and close down. More people leave those who were previously employed in them, and those who used them. Less mobile people, low-income families and older people are left, there are fewer services, and less transport, shops close and people are forced to move. Improving transport links with nearby cities to encourage commuters can reverse this downward spiral. Employment such as small industries, and entertainment can also be provided to attract people. Events like village pageants can be used to maintain the village spirit.
Population density
- Population Density equals total population divided by land area, this gives a figure in people per km2. People are located unevenly throughout the world, and within a country
- Birth rate equals the number of live babes born for every 1000 people per year
- Death rate equals the number of deaths in every 1000 people per year
- Natural increase is birth rate subtract death rate
High population density is found because:
- Large rivers – provide food, power and transport
- Natural Resources – provide jobs and useful products
- Climate – temperature and precipitation make an area pleasant to live in, and are important for farming and some other industries
- Nearby markets, money and technology – Good for farming and industry eg London
- Access – other countries, coastal areas and route ways are important for trade
- Good farming land – Flat and fertile soils eg East Anglia
Low population density is found:
- Rainforests – difficult to live there
- Deserts – too dry to support life
- Icey – too cold to support life, with long winters
- Mountainous areas – access is a major problem, as is soil fertility, atmosphere, ocmmuncations difficult, distance form markets eg Andes or Highlands
Demographic Transition Model
Stage 1 - High stationary population such as some remote groups
High birth and death rate. Many children are needed for farming, and infant mortality rate is high so few survive, culturally it is thought better to have more children, and there is no family planning, so birth rate is high. Death rate is high because of disease and famine, poor medical knowledge, and many children die.
Stage 2 - Very rapid increase in population, such as in Egypt, Kenya or India
High birth rate with a rapidly falling death rate as improvements in medical care, water supply and sanitation, fewer children die.
Stage 3 – Less rapid growth in population such as Brazil
Birth rate and death rate falling slowly as medical care and diet improve, so fewer children are needed, as death rates are lower, pension schemes mean fewer children are needed.
Stage 4 – Low stationary population such as USA, UK, Japan or France
Family planning, good healthcare, improved status of women, later marriages etc mean low birth rates. Death rates are low as healthcare and food supply are good.
Stage 5 – Declining population such as Germany
People begin to want fewer children as there is no need, and they can have a better career without, so birth rate drops below death rate, leading to a great number of dependant older people, as people live longer, but dependant on a smaller number of people.
Population structure pyramids
These show the number of people of each gender at each age sector of the population. These show trends in birth rate, infant mortality, death rate, economic dependants, results of migration, and life expectancy. Developed countries have longer female life expectancy, and long life expectancy. They are rectangular showing the low death rate, and are not narrowing, showing the low infant mortality. Male and females are almost equal. Narrowing base means the birth rate is low and falling. Developing countries have a wide base, showing the high birth rate, a pyramid, showing the growing population with high infant mortality, birth rate, and death rate. Many people rely on few, leading to poverty.
Many elderly dependants (people over the age of 65 who rely on economically active) - Pension schemes are expensive, as are schemes such as meals on wheels. There is a strain on medical services, sheltered houses, and post offices (supplying pensions,) there are many widows, and facilities such as day centres and bowls clubs are needed. The economically active are unhappy because they work but all the money goes to help the elderly.
Many young dependants – Need expensive play areas, youth clubs, schools (overcrowding,) health services. Women can’t work as have to look after the children. Children may become latch key kids if there parents work, leading to crime, graffiti and vandalism.
International Migration
People emigrate because there are better employment opportunities, better life quality, want to escape conflict / natural disasters, or are forced as refugees. This causes problems, because emigrants are not always welcomed, and people have to retrain, or they rely on the benefits systems, housing problems, healthcare problems and legal difficulties are all important issues. People move from LEDCs to MEDCs for the more stable economies, where they can work shorter hours and get paid more.
An ecosystem describes the interaction of organisms within an environment:
- Inputs – Sunlight, rainfall, air containing Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide, Soil Minerals, Organic Matter, Animals and plants from elsewhere
- Processes – Photosynthesis releasing Oxygen, Respiration releasing Carbon Dioxide, Feeding, Decomposing bacteria, Reproduction
- Outputs – Air containing Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide, energy, glucose, water vapour, offspring, faeces, urine
- Recycling of nutrients
Trophic Levels are the feeding levels of organism within an environment:
- Abiotic substances
- Producers – oak tree, hazel tree, grass, flowers, brambles
- Herbivores – rabbits, worms
- Carnivores and Omnivores – Fox, spiders, blackbirds, insects
- Decomposers – Fungi, bacteria
Rainforests
Rainforests are the richest ecosystems in the world, with many rare species. Light competition leads to emergents (tallest trees,) canopy, under canopy, and shrub layer (humidity is perfect.) At the surface, insects break down the deciduous leaves, recycling the nutrients. Convectional rainfall occurs because it is very hot. Much of it is intercepted by trees, which have drip tips to shed heavy rainfall. Trees have top leaves above the canopy to reach sunlight, the rest of the tree has no lower branches, and is tall and thin. Thick buttress roots support the tree and anchor it, as well as reaching out along the forest to get nutrients. The forest has a continuous evergreen appearance because it has a continual growing season. Creepers, such as lianas, grow up the trees.
Deforestation – This alters wildlife habitats, plants and animals which are unable to adapt die out. There is less humus (plant waste) so the nutrients are not added into the soil and it becomes infertile. With no roots to anchor the soil, it is washed away. People want the land to grow crops, to live on, for food production for MEDCs, for cattle ranches, for mining, for hydroelectric power, for logging, for plantations, and for roads. This loses culture of groups such as the Amazon Indians, and spoils the land, losing rare species, valuable for medicine. Deforestation could also cause global warming as less Carbon Dioxide is converted to Oxygen through photosynthesis. As there is less evapotranspiration, it could lead to a desert climate.
Renewable sources Can be used again and again and will not run out
Non-Renewable Sources Are finite and will run out
Fossil fuels Come from the ground, were created millions of years ago from dead matter
Mining is an example of energy change in Britain. Open cast mining is ugly, hazardous, and noisy however, it is easier to mine and machines can be used. In the 1920s British mining was threatened by the world market, in the 1930s lack of investment and strikes threatened the industry, so in 1948, it was modernised, nationalised and government supported, this meant super pits replaced the smaller pits. Gas is now becoming popular, taken from the North and Irish Sea, and since 1965, consumption has increased by 32%, it is cheaper and cleaner than coal. IT contributes to global warming.
Solar Power converts the sun’s energy into electricity, or it is used to heat water, through special panels, unreliable in the UK due to poor weather. Nuclear Power uses radioactive material in controlled conditions to release energy, can be dangerous, but there is little pollution and it us renewable, waste is a problem. Tidal Energy is panels which convert wave power to energy huge booms across estuaries drive turbines, such as in South Wales and Devon. Wave Energy uses hollow blocks of concrete with links to generate energy, it could generate 33% of UK energy. Biogas Gas (Carbon Dioxide and Methane) made from decayed material which can be burnt to produce energy, this is done in Sheffield City. Hydro-electricity force of moving water is converted into energy Large dams across reservoirs are released by controlled amounts, turning a turbine connected to a dynamo, best in steep sided valleys with high rainfall, could provide 10% of our energy. Geothermal is when holes are drilled into the Earth’s crust then the hot water is used to heat people’s homes. On Wind farms turbines convert kinetic energy to electrical energy, it is clean, cheap and reliable, in Scotland and Northern Ireland, but is unsightly and noisy.
Carbon Dioxide Levels increase by burning fossil fuels and deforestation, this traps heat being reflected by the Earth, less heat escapes and warming increases global warming. Which will cause a temperature rise, sea level rise, and reduce cereal production. International agreement is tough because there are so many countries involved. Sulphur Dioxide and NOx are produced from power stations , industry and transport, these cause acid rain, which affects buildings, trees and ground water. Methane and CFCs all contribute to the ozone depletion which can mean that we are less protected from the sun’s harmful UV rays.
Collision Two plates move towards each other, leading to violent volcanoes, such as the Himalayas.
Constructive Two plates (eg N.American and Eurasian) move apart, the magma comes to the surface as a volcano and cools, forming new crust, such as Iceland, leading to an oceanic ridge, such as Mid Atlantic Ridge.
Continental Less dense, constantly renewed, covered in land, older?
Convection These occur in the mantle causing the tectonic plates to move
Destructive Oceanic and continental crust move together, there is subduction and the oceanic crust melts due to heat and friction, this leads to magma pressure, coming up as volcanoes eg South America (Nazca&S.American)
Emergency Aid Aid given to allow people to survive in the aftermath of a disaster
Epicentre Point on the surface where the earthquake occurred
EQ preparation Disaster days, evacuation plans, emergency packs, using propaganda and public information, skyscrapers with steel frames which sway, fire resistant bricks etc all reduce damage
EQ warnings Sensitive instruments detecting heat, pressure, seismic waves and tidal fluctuations can be used. Animal and fish unusual behaviour can be observed. Mapping of previous earthquakes, and looking at regularity is important.
Focus Area below the ground where the earthquake actually occurred
Gentle Lava Gentle sided volcanoes of runny lava, which spreads slowly across cracks in the crust and around the countryside
Long term aid Involving repairing the damage, and preventing another disaster, such as at Monterserrat, where Britain gave £2,400 to over 18s to leave the island, and £41 million to develop the North.
Passive Two plates slide past each other, leading to friction and earthquakes eg San Andreas Fault
Tsunamis Tidal waves, triggered by earthquakes
Violent Lava Forms when there are no cracks in the volcano so lava erupts violently, falling down, building up a cone
Coastal erosion occurs in 4 ways:
- Hydraulic Action – Sheer force of the water pushes air into cracks, compresses it, putting strain on the rocks until they crack
- Corrasion – Waves hurl beach material at the cliff, acting like sandpaper, eroding the cliff, and breaking down rocks and pebbles
- Corrosion – Water can dissolve some rocks, such as limestone, away
- Attrition – Rocks and pebbles bump into each other, knocking bits off, and breaking down in size
It is effected by rock type, wind strength, time wind blows for, distance of sea (fetch,) currents, and the depth of the sea. Norfolk, Cornwall, Dorset and Devon are all very exposed and so suffer from sever erosion. Clay soils are washed away.
Coastal erosion is a big problem in many places, threatening way of life, people’s homes etc, this can be minimised by:
- Sea Wall – Stone or concrete wall against cliff, reflecting waves, is expensive but lasts
- Revetment – Steel posts which reduce wave energy, may reduce shipping, but not too expensive OR a sloping carpet like concrete wall laid like carpet along the cost, also quite expensive
- Gabions – Mesh baskets filled with stones, that eventually become grass covered, they are cheap and effective, but ugly at first
- Groynes – Trap sand, reducing erosion, expensive but effective, can increase tourist appeal
- Rip-rap – Man made boulders which break up the waves, are quite expensive, but attractive and popular, although can cause injury
- Beach Rebuilding – This has to be done regularly, but is cheap and popular with tourists, having little or no effect down the coast
- Offshore breakwater – Protects the shore from all waves, located off shore, may cause shipping problems
It is also difficult because it require co-operation between counties, and effects places downstream.
Transportation occurs along beaches in the form of longshore drift, in the direction of the prevailing wind. Material is pulled up the beach by swash, and dragged diagonally forward and down by backwash, due to gravity. Shingle beaches are steeper with larger shingle and pebbles at the top, sandy beaches are gentler with fine sand at the bottom. When there are coastal directional changes, material may be deposited, this can lead to the formation of a spit, a jutting built up area, poking out to sea. Different wind directions lead to different curves, and hooks. Sand bars occur in river estuaries when sand is deposited, leading to a bar of land parallel to the estuary, which slowly moves inland, such as at Slapton. A tombolo occurs when a sand bar connects an island and the mainland, such as between Weymouth and Portland.
Hope this is useful please don’t try and pass it off as your own work! This is the work of Rebecca Anna Kate Sykes form UK Peterborough and it took me hours (it also got me an A* at GCSE Geography!)
