Summary
As arousal increases performance reflects usual behaviour (Dominant Habit) e.g. an unlearned skill-performer makes mistakes-these will increases as arousal increases.
A skilled performer makes fewer mistakes because the performer can improve further in the technique, which they can already achieve; this increases the arousal level.
Inverted U Theory
It was said that the drive theory did not sow the fluctuation or differences in performance levels. Therefore a current more acceptable method is used this is called the Inverted U Theory. This theory suggest that up to a certain point (Fig.3.) the arousal levels can be too low for the best results. This would happen if the player was too relaxed and not psyched up enough. The vice versa was shown as when the arousal turns to anxiety the performance levels decrease as the player becomes too up for the activity being “psyched out of it” (point B in Fig.3.). Between point A and B on the diagram below there is an area in the middle, this area indicates an optimal arousal level, meaning the adequate amount of arousal needed to produce good results/performance.
The theory has not been verified and has been under many discussions, but it is important to realise that the inverted U theory is very much a generalisation. There are curves, which are for individuals and task differences.
- The area to point A indicates the area where low arousal will occur, because the performer is too relaxed and not psyched up.
- The area from point B indicates a high level of arousal; this is where the performer has become too psyched up for a game or activity.
- The area between point A and B on the diagram indicates that this is the area of optional arousal, where the performer is seen to give their best results or performances.
The drive theory and the invented U theory suggest that a certain level of Arousal is needed to produce good performances. Arousal responses are generated by a variety of means, some automatically and others associated with emotions. Arousal can be recognised by the physical symptoms to distinguish either automatic or associated with emotion i.e. anger, sorrowful.
Those that are associated with physical performance are generated by our perceptions of the demands of the situations. In a practise or recreational game the importance of not failing is less. A cup final or league championship game, however have a high level of importance as the player must meet the demands of the situation, team mates, manager, fans and all of this arousal can produce doubt in even the most confident of players. These doubts can, if dwell on them, generate high arousal and may lead to anxiety. Anxiety is an emotional state, similar to fear, associated with physiological and psychological arousal and with feelings of nervousness and apprehension.
Anxiety has two components trait anxiety and state anxiety:
Trait anxiety- “is a behavioural disposition which predisposes a person to perceive objectivity non-dangerous circumstances as threatening and to respond to these with state anxiety levels disproportionate to the level of threat”. ( Weinberg and Gould, 1995)
Trait anxiety depends on the personality of the person as if the person has a high trait anxiety, then that person will become fearful very easily in any unfamiliar circumstances. The symptoms will appear to be very clear that the person is nervous with obvious physical symptoms.
State anxiety- is an emotional response to particular situations; the signs of state anxiety would be nervousness and apprehension. State anxiety can often be temporary, which exists in relation to particular situations.
E.g. if a player becomes nervous playing table tennis on their own, but are relaxed in a team game i.e. football. The state anxiety is shown playing table tennis on their own.
People with high anxiety usually have higher state anxiety in competitive or evaluate situations than those with low trait anxiety.
Task differences
It is not possible to calculate or predict the exact level of arousal that is needed to give the best results for any one activity. As so much depends on the circumstances and the personalities of the competitors, although there are some general rules that can help the teacher or coach.
Simple and Complex tasks- it is said that it is easier from a player to kick in rugby from in front of the posts, than from the sideline. When saying that task is easier, what it really means is that there is a great margin for a successful execution, although staying within the boundaries.
Obviously, a task becomes easier for a player the more times the player practises. This would mean that the task would become simpler. Simple tasks have a broader optimal arousal zone than complex tasks i.e. the player can tolerate greater arousal levels before successful turns into unsuccessful performances.
Complex tasks have lees optimal levels of the movements require more precision.
Fine and gross Tasks- as with complex task, fine motor tasks have fewer margins for error than gross tasks: they require precision of movement.
Comparing putting in golf to weight lifting, there is a considerable difference between the two when preparing to perform. When watching golf, the golfer tries to relax and calm down before attempting the putt. While watching a weightlifter the revenue happens as he/she really tries to “psyched him/herself up”. Individuals tackling gross motor tasks can tolerate greater levels of arousal before errors appear than those dealing with fine motor tasks.
Strength or Endurance and information processing tasks- when comparing both a golfer putting and a weightlifter again, there are also another difference. A golfer uses the information processing as a key component. High arousal levels would seem to interfere with the information processing, which would then affect the skill. The reverse would happen in weightlifting, as high arousal is important as the performers main concern is to summon as much of his/her strength and/or endurance as possible.
The diagram below (Fig.4.) illustrates the optimal arousal levels for six types of tasks. It is important that it is understood that they are all-hypothetical, but can be useful to the teachers and coaches.
What seems to be clear from the experience of Gill 1986 is that:
- Optimal arousal levels can be identified.
- These vary across individuals and activities.
- Ability to control arousal is the key to successful performances.
Anxiety can be a big problem in sport as it effects many players’ performances. The individual can deal with low anxiety with not too much decrease in performance. The main problem is when the player creates excessive amounts of anxiety and the player witnesses a rapid decrease in performances and performs well under thier acceptability. Excessive anxiety is often being associated with the “ego threat” loss of face/perception of in ability to meet the demands of the situations/fear of the injury. If the player realises the effect of anxiety that itself can increase anxiety. With all these high levels of anxiety an increase in arousal and that excessive arousal is associated with decreased performance i.e. the invented U theory. The cognitive anxiety takes up processing capacity and diverts it from the tasks, all these effects can if not controlled, can lead to a complete breakdown in performance. To help lower the chance of excessive anxiety there are many ways to try and overcome the problem:
