Ethical questions have been raised concerning the use of aversion therapy, and indeed all therapies that use conditioning procedures to change behaviour. First, although the undesirable behaviour may be changed, the therapy may not reach the underlying causes of the behaviour, and, therefore, undesirable behaviour is some form or other, is likely to emerge later. Second, forced aversion therapy is used on children and teenagers in some countries, which raises the issue of consent. And third, aversion therapy deliberately causes pain and distress in some patients, which does not seem compatible with the duty of psychologists to at least minimise the risk of pain and harm.
THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACHSOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF AGGRESSION
An examination essential
Describe how the behaviourist approach has been applied to one theory in psychology.
The behaviourist approach assumes that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is learned through the processes of classical and operant conditioning. In other words, we learn by interacting with the world around us, especially by the ways our environment operates on us. In classical conditioning we ‘learn by association’ while in operant conditioning we ‘learn through the consequences of our behaviour’.
Social Learning Theory extends this approach by suggesting that we learn not only by direct experience but also by observational experience. In other words, a boy who sees other boys rewarded for polite behaviour is likely to behave politely in order to gain the same rewards.
Social Learning Theory has been used to explain aggression, particularly why children may behave aggressively. According to social learning principles, children learn aggression by observing people behaving aggressively and imitating their behaviour. People who are observed are called models because they are modelling the behaviour the children imitate. Children are likely to copy the behaviour of people they see as similar to themselves, adults they admire, powerful people, or people who are rewarded for their aggression (indirect/vicarious reinforcement). The child is likely to continuing imitating the behaviour if this brings reinforcement, rewards in any form.
Albert Bandura et al. (1967) conducted a series of experiments to study how children learned to behave aggressively. In Bandura’s basic procedure, children saw an adult behave aggressively, both verbally and physically, towards a large inflatable doll, called a Bobo doll. The children then had the chance to play with a range of toys, including a Bobo doll, and observers assessed their behaviour. The observers found that children who saw an aggressive model reproduced more of the aggressive acts than children who saw a non-aggressive model. Another finding was that the children showed significantly more imitation of a same-sex model, and boys performed more acts of aggression than girls.
Bandura noted that boys will imitate aggressive behaviour more readily than girls, and that both sexes will copy the behaviour of adults than that of children. Bandura’s research confirmed his belief that children learn from their social environment, which provides models of behaviour as well as expectations of appropriate behaviour. The key processes of social learning are observation, imitation and reinforcement.
Bandura’s research has been criticised. Firstly, the children saw aggression towards an inflatable doll, not towards another human being, so perhaps the children did not display ‘real’ aggression. Secondly, the laboratory procedure may lack ecological validity because the situation does not occur in real-life. Thirdly, it’s ethically questionable if we should be ‘teaching’ children to behave aggressively.
THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH - ASSUMPTIONS
An examination essential
Outline the main assumptions of the biological approach.
The biological approach assumes that all behaviour, including abnormal behaviour, has physiological causes in the same way that physical illnesses have physical causes. In other words, abnormal behaviour is caused by a physiological abnormality. For example, abnormal behaviour may be caused by chemical malfunctions in the brain or by genetic disorders. Too much dopamine (a neurotransmitter) in the brain is linked with the mental illness called schizophrenia, and it is also clear that the eating disorder called anorexia nervosa has a genetic component.
The biological approach has focused on the links between the brain and behaviour. It is assumed that all mental illnesses have a physiological cause related to the physical structure and/or the functioning of the brain. A distinction is made between ‘organic’ and ‘functional’ disorders. Organic disorders involve obvious brain damage, such as a brain tumour, while functional disorders, such as depression, don’t have an obvious physical cause. The biological approach assumes that mental illnesses, just like physical illness, have recognisable symptoms. Psychiatrists use diagnostic manuals such DSM-IV to compare symptoms with set classifications of illnesses.
Technological advances such as CT scans and PET scans allow scientists to study the the workings of the brain and its relationship to human behaviour. This has helped in
a wide range of research including the study of sleep, dreaming, and stress, as well as the diagnoses and treatment of mental illness.
The biological approach assumes that mental illness can be treated by invasive, physical intervention. It’s assumed there’s a physiological cause, so a physiological treatment is used. There are three main somatic therapies: psychotherapeutic drugs (chemotherapy), ECT (electro-convulsive therapy), and psychosurgery which may be used to treat clinical depression and even acute anorexia.
Psychologists have also become increasingly interested in the role of genes in understanding human behaviour. As we have understood more and more about DNA, scientists have claimed there are specific genes that determine sexual orientation, criminal tendencies, basic personality traits, and even how religious an individual is likely to be.
Although it would be reductionist to try and explain all human behaviour as a product of our biology, it does seem likely that the biological approach will continue to contribute hugely to our understanding of mind and behaviour.
THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
An examination essential
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the biological approach.
The main strength of the biological approach is that chemotherapy, ECT and psychosurgery can be used to treat the symptoms of abnormal behaviour directly and in a very short time. For example, Ritalin can be used to control ADHD, and Prozac can be used to alleviate depression fairly quickly. Carefully-controlled studies are used to test and demonstrate the effectiveness of drugs. In addition, treatment can be easily varied, for example, by changing the dosage of the medication or the medication itself.
However there may be problems with these treatments as they all carry the risk of negative side effects though these don’t usually outweigh the benefits For example, in the case of chemotherapy there is the risk that patients may become psychologically and physically dependent on the drugs involved. And the results of psychosurgery are irreversible, which raises serious ethical issues. However, patients are often pleased to have tried these ‘last-ditch’ treatments even if they haven’t been successful.
A second advantage is that the patient is not labelled as mentally ill. Unfortunately, the label of mental illness still carries a stigma in our society. It is reassuring to most people to learn that their behaviour has a biological/medical cause that can be corrected or controlled by medical treatment.
The main limitation of the biological approach is that it may be useful in dealing with the symptoms of abnormal behaviour but it may not be effective in resolving the underlying causes. Symptoms can recur when the treatment stops, and many patients have to be re-admitted to hospital, the so-called ‘revolving door’ syndrome. However, if the main symptom of depression is the feeling of depression and drugs stop this, we can argue the medical approach has succeeded.
Mental illness may have multiple causes, including cognitive and behavioural causes. The biological approach does not take these into consideration. It is always dangerous to reduce a complex phenomenon to a single explanation (reductionism). Greater emphasis should be placed on a patient’s personal feelings and experiences.
A BIOLOGICAL THERAPY - PSYCHOSURGERY
An examination essential!
Describe how the biological approach has been applied in one form of treatment/therapy in psychology.
Psychosurgery involves the deliberate destruction of brain tissue in an attempt to alleviate mental illnesses such as clinical depression. The destruction of brain tissue has a long history going back to trepanning (drilling a hole through the skull) and lobotomy (crude destruction of tissue).
In modern medicine, psychosurgery is used to treat severe depression, and anorexia which is threatening the life of the patient. The aim in psychosurgery is to interrupt the brain circuits that control our emotional responses. This is done by making tiny lesions/cuts in the brain tissue to destroy some of the nerve cells.
Psychosurgery is now possible without cutting through the skull. Radiosurgery is used to concentrate radiation (the so-called gamma knife) into a single, tiny point of brain tissue in the emotional centres of the brain. This tissue is destroyed while the surrounding healthy tissue is spared damage.
There are issues involving undesirable-effects and the irreversible nature of psychosurgery. Since the procedure involves the destruction of brain tissue, the results of any operation are irreversible. This has raised ethical doubts in the minds of many people who believe no one has the right to destroy part of another person, even if this is in the name of a cure. However, others believe it is a patient’s right to be able to give their informed consent to such a last-resort operation.
It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of psychosurgery when so few operations are carried out, and the criteria for success cannot be agreed upon. Although Cobb (1993) reported a 75% success rate, the Mental Health Charity MIND (2002) believes that there should be a “rigorous review to determine whether any continued use if justified.”
Psychosurgery is seen very much as a treatment of last resort.
A BIOLOGICAL THERAPY - CHEMOTHERAPY
an examination essential
Describe how the biological approach has been applied in one form of therapy in psychology.
About 25% of all drugs prescribed by the National Health Service are for mental health problems. Psychotherapeutic drugs modify the working of the brain and affect mood and behaviour. Patients suffering from mental disorders are often prescribed more than one drug.
Drugs work by entering the bloodstream in order to reach the brain where they affect the transmission of chemicals in the nervous system. These chemicals are called neurotransmitters and they have a variety of effects on behaviour. The main neurotransmitters are dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, noradrenaline and GABA. Basically, drugs work by either increasing or decreasing the availability of these neurotransmitters and hence modifying their effects on behaviour.
The five major drug types are: the anti-psychotics (major tranquillisers), the anti-anxiety drugs (minor tranquillisers), the anti-depressants, the anti-manics (mood-stabilising drugs), and the stimulant drugs. All of these groups have varying levels of effectiveness, from short-term to long-term, but most have negative, undesirable side-effects. It is also fair to say that while chemotherapy is often effective at tackling the symptoms of mental disorders, they may not reach the underlying causes of the disorder, and when the chemotherapy is discontinued the disorder returns.
For example, the benzodiazepines, which are the most commonly used minor tranquillisers, are effective in controlling anxiety in the short term, become less effective, and they can even produce the symptoms they are intended to reduce, the so-called ‘rebound effect’. Benzodiazepines are also highly addictive.
On the other hand, the anti-depressant drugs often cure the mental disorder. Depression is thought to occur because not enough serotonin and noradrenaline are being produced in the brain. By boosting the levels of these neurotransmitters, the majority of patients can remain free from depression for long periods of their lives. Unlike the benzodiazepines, anti-depressant drugs are not addictive though they may cause negative side-effects such as nausea, diarrhoea and headaches.
The major tranquillisers, the anti-psychotics, work by lowering dopamine activity in the brain. These drugs are used to treat dopamine disorders, the manic phase of manic depression, and other psychotic symptoms. They can help relieve voice-hearing, hallucinations, delusions and feelings of paranoia. Although they do not cure the illness, the reduction of psychotic symptoms can significantly improve many patients’ lives.
A BIOLOGICAL THEORY
SELYE’S GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
An examination essential
Describe how the biological approach has been applied to one theory in psychology.
According to Hans Selye (1956), the General Adaptation Syndrome represents the body’s defence against stress. Selye suggested that our responses to stress are universal, i.e. we all have the same pattern of physiological responses. These responses include the release of stress hormones (e.g. adrenaline), release of glucose from the liver, rapid heartbeat, breathlessness, and increased blood supply to the muscles. In other words, when placed under stress we go into ‘fight or flight’ mode.
Selye defined stress as: ‘the individual’s physiological response, mediated largely by the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system, to any demands made on the individual.’ He proposed there are three stages in General Adaptation Syndrome: alarm - resistance - exhaustion.
In the alarm stage, the ANS (autonomic nervous system) produces high levels of adrenaline and other adrenal hormones such as steroids to prepare the body for ‘fight or flight’. There is a brief initial shock phase when blood pressure (BP) and muscle tension drop. Resistance to the stressor is reduced. But this is quickly followed by the countershock phase when the body’s physiological defences swing into action.
In the resistance stage, the ANS (autonomic nervous system) returns to normal, but the body continues to use its physiological resources to resist the effects of the stressor. During this stage, there is more careful use of the body’s resources, and there is also the use of coping strategies, e.g. denying the situation is stressful.
In the exhaustion stage, the physiological systems become depleted and ineffective, and stress-related illnesses (e.g. high blood pressure, asthma, heart disease) become more likely. Selye (1956) also found that if a second source of stress was introduced during the exhaustion stage, it could have devastating consequences for the health of individual.
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS – an examination essential
Outline the main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach.
The psychodynamic approach assumes that experiences in our earliest years can affect our emotions, attitudes and behaviour in later years without us being aware that it is happening. Freud suggested the mind or psyche has three parts: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. Freud suggested that individuals can never be aware of the contents of the unconscious.
He also suggested that there is often conflict between the id and the superego in the unconscious. The id represents a person’s basic drives, such as the sexual drive, and the superego represents the conscience we develop by living in a society. These two parts of the psyche need to be managed by the ego. When this balance isn’t achieved, abnormal behaviour may result. For example, anxiety disorders may occur from an over-developed superego (conscience), when the person simply worries far too much trying to live up to external rules, perhaps those imposed by over-strict parents. Since these processes occur at an unconscious level, people cannot be aware of them.
Freud argued that childhood experiences play a crucial part in adult development, including the development of adult personality. Every child must pass through the so-called psycho-sexual stages; how a child experiences these stages plays a crucial role in the development of his/her personality. A child who becomes fixated at the oral stage may have an oral receptive personality and be very trusting and dependent on others, or he may develop an oral aggressive personality and become aggressive and dominating as an adult. The phallic personality type may be over-confident, vain and impulsive while the genital personality type become well-adjusted, mature, able to love and be loved.
Freud also suggested that emotional traumas and painful experiences in childhood may be repressed into the unconscious where they may produce not only abnormal behaviour and mental illness but also psychosomatic illnesses, such as asthma. The psychodynamic approach assumes that psychoanalysis can make the ‘unconscious conscious’ and reveal the true cause of any abnormalities. If the patient relives the emotional pain of these repressed memories, the conflicts will be resolved and the patient will be cured. Modern psychoanalysis suggests patients must also come to understand what happened to them cognitively.
Therefore, the psychodynamic approach suggests that mental illness occurs as a result of psychological problems, not physical problems as suggested by the biological approach.
THE PSYCHDYNAMIC APPROACH
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES –
An examination essential
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach.
A strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it reminds us that experiences in childhood can affect us throughout our lives without us being aware that it is happening. Some experiences in childhood may be so emotionally painful that the only way the child can cope is by repressing the memory of these experiences into the unconscious. Therefore, the approach accepts that everyone can suffer mental conflicts and neuroses through no fault of their own. The approach also offers a ‘cure’ for abnormality through psychoanalysis by reaching the underlying causes in the unconscious, making them conscious, and releasing the patient from the emotional pain caused by the childhood trauma.
Freud was the first to stress the importance of psychological factors causing abnormal behaviour. His argument that psychological problems can result in physical symptoms is widely accepted today. Many people would agree that unconscious processes do have an effect on human behaviour, and Freud’s work on how defence mechanisms protect the ego is especially useful. Most people accept that we do use repression, denial, projection, and other defence mechanisms to protect our egos.
The main limitation of the psychodynamic model is that it cannot be scientifically observed or tested. In fact, one cannot even imagine a test by which psychodynamic theory can be disproved. There is no way of demonstrating if the Unconscious actually exists. There is no way of verifying if a repressed memory is a real or false memory unless independent evidence is available. In other words, most of psychodynamics must be taken on faith.
A second weakness is that any evidence recovered from a patient must be analysed and interpreted by a therapist. This leaves open the possibility of serious misinterpretation or bias because two therapists may interpret the same evidence in entirely different ways. Psychoanalysis is time-consuming and expensive, and serious questions have been raised about its effectiveness.
In addition, the psychodynamic approach ignores possible biological, behaviourist, and cognitive explanations of abnormal behaviour, and may be in that sense dangerously reductionist.
A PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY - THE TALKING CURE
An examination essential!
Describe how the psychodynamic approach has been applied in one form of therapy in psychology, e.g. Free Association/Talking Cure.
The psychodynamic approach assumes that experiences in our earliest years can affect our emotions, attitudes and behaviour in later years without us being aware that it is happening.
The therapy called Free Association or the Talking Cure is based on the psychodynamic model of abnormality. Psychotherapy places great significance on childhood experiences, such as the psychosexual stages, and on repressed impulses and unresolved conflicts in the unconscious.
The aim of psychotherapy is to bring repressed material into conscious awareness – ‘to make the unconscious conscious’.
During therapy sessions the patient is encouraged to relax on a couch and talk about whatever comes into his mind. The therapist listens and offers no judgement about anything the patient says. It is hoped the patient will relax his internal censor and released repressed material from the unconscious. The therapist then helps the patient interpret the material and gain insight into the origins of the conflict. During the therapy the patient may also transfer his unconscious feelings and emotions onto the therapist.
The psychotherapist helps the patient deal with the emotions and memories recovered from the unconscious. This cathartic emotional experience is called abreaction, and a patient experiencing abreaction will be ‘cured’ of his disorder. In modern psychoanalysis, the therapist will help the patient come to a cognitive understanding of his experiences in childhood.
Psychotherapy has been criticized because there is no way we can scientifically test the methods of free association and dream analysis. The results of these methods depend on speculation and interpretation by the therapist. This means two therapists could interpret the same material and come to opposite conclusions. In addition, psychotherapy is often time-consuming and expensive.
The Talking Cure has had some success with mental problems such as anxiety, hysteria and OCD, but some psychologists argue it is being able to talk about difficulties that produce the improvement, making the therapy essentially cognitive rather than psychodynamic.
A PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY - DREAM ANALYSIS
An examination essential
Describe how the psychodynamic approach has been applied in one form of therapy in psychology, e.g. Dream Analysis.
Sigmund Freud suggested the mind or psyche has three parts: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. Freud suggested that individuals can never be aware of the contents of the unconscious although drives and conflicts in the unconscious are responsible for much of our behaviour.
Freud (1902) described dreams as ‘the royal road to the unconscious’. By this he meant that dreams provide a significant way of making the unconscious conscious. Freud described dreams as disguised messages often expressing repressed wishes and desires that the conscious person would find unacceptable. Many of these desires are often of a sexual nature.
Freud suggested that while we are asleep our ego defences are lowered, and this provides the opportunity for repressed wishes and desires to emerge in dreams, albeit in a disguised, symbolic form. He suggested that, no matter how strange or bizarre dreams are, they carry important messages to the individual. However, the client undergoing dream analysis needs the help of an analyst to interpret these dreams and explain their true meaning.
What we recall of our dream is the latent, or hidden content. This dream expresses desires or anxieties we may have. However, it is in symbolic form because the unacceptable desires or worries the dream expresses would wake us up. It is the task of the analyst to interpret the latent dream and explain its true/real meaning, the manifest content, to the client. For example, a student who reported frequently dreaming about crossing a wobbly bridge might be expressing anxiety about important examinations he is afraid of failing.
When the analyst is helping the client interpret the dream, it is important he does not force the interpretation on the client. In fact, his interpretation should be close to interpretations that client himself is on the verge of making. The client should be encouraged to see how the dream helps him understand his present-day behaviour, and how this behaviour may be related to incidents and experiences in his childhood, especially those that involve some sort of conflict or emotional pain.
The most important aim of dream analysis is to provide the client with insight into how the conflicts in his unconscious are related to his present-day problems. This insight will help the client understand the nature and origin of these conflicts, and by doing so resolve the conflicts and be cured of the disorder.
However, it is fair to say that later research has not supported Freud’s theory of the nature and function of dreams.
A PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY - PERSONALITY
An examination essential
Describe how the psychodynamic approach has been applied to one theory in psychology.
Sigmund Freud suggested that experiences in early childhood can continue to affect us throughout our lives without us being aware of it. These experiences include stages in our psychosexual development. How a child experiences these stages play a crucial role in the development of his/her adult personality.
Freud said that personality developed through the psychosexual stages from infancy to adulthood. The five stages are: the Oral stage (birth to 18 months) when infants enjoy various activities involving their mouths, lips, and tongues; the Anal stage (18 months to 3 years) when the anal area is the main source of satisfaction; the Phallic stage (3 to 6 years) when children derive pleasure from their genitals; the Latent stage (6 years to puberty) when sexual urges are dormant; and the Genital stage (puberty onwards) when the focus is on sexual pleasure involving other people.
How a child passes through each of these stages will help determine what kind of personality he has. If a child experiences a trauma at one of these stages, then their behaviour at that stage can become fixated, and this behaviour can become a permanent feature of their personality.
For example, a child who becomes fixated at the oral stage may become self-centred, greedy, dependent on others, or cynical as an adult. A child fixated at the anal stage may become obsessive, compulsive, stubborn and unwilling to share as an adult. A child fixated at the phallic stage may become ultra-ambitious, over-confident and impulsive as an adult. In other words, if we do not receive an appropriate amount of gratification - receiving either too little or too much during a psychosexual stage - we may become fixated in a particular stage. That is, we continue to have the same demand for gratification that we had at that stage throughout the rest of our lives.
When an adult is under stress, he may show regression, with his behaviour becoming more and more like his behaviour when he was fixated as a child. For example, a person with an oral personality may regress to sucking his thumb, smoking heavily, or comfort-eating when stressed, anxious or depressed.
Incidentally, Freud believed that the Latent stage (from 6 to puberty) is given over to the development of defence mechanisms such as repression, regression, denial, identification and rationalisation. These defence mechanisms help us protect our sense of self as represented by the ego.
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
ASSUMPTIONS – an examination essential
Outline the main assumptions of the cognitive approach.
By cognition we mean mental processes such as thinking, remembering, imagining, information-processing, and language. The cognitive approach assumes that how we perceive our self, the world and the future influences how we feel and how we behave. In other word, cognitive psychology focuses on how information received from our senses is processed by the brain and how this processing directs how we behave.
Cognitive research is often focused on how our brains process information, and the research tends to take place in the laboratory rather than in real-life settings although useful research has been done on eye-witness testimony and on dyslexia. Research also tends to focus on specific rather than a general problem, e.g. on depth perception, but it is assumed the findings will have wider applications.
Cognitive psychology has been influenced by developments in computer science and comparisons are often made between how a computer processes information and how the human brain processes information. However, we should keep in mind that the human brain is far more sophisticated than a computer, and that we are also influenced by past experiences and by our cultural experiences.
The cognitive approach also assumes that disordered thinking can cause disordered or abnormal behaviour. Disordered thinking includes negative thoughts, irrational beliefs, and illogical errors. These disordered thoughts usually happen automatically and without the individual being fully aware of them. For example, disordered thinking may be at the root of disorders such as depression and anxiety.
The cognitive approach assumes that cognitive disorders have been learned, and, therefore, they can be unlearned. In this way it is similar to the behavioural approach. These thoughts can be monitored, evaluated and altered. Individuals can learn to challenge their faulty cognitions and self-defeating thoughts. So the approach assumes cognitive change will lead to changes in behaviour.
According to Albert Ellis, when we think rationally, we behave rationally, and as a consequence we are happy, competent and effective. On the other hand, prolonged irrational thinking can lead to psychological problems and abnormal behaviour.
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
An examination essential
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the cognitive approach.
A major strength of the cognitive approach is that it concentrates on current information-processing by the brain. It does not depend on the past history of the client, for example, recovering repressed memories from the unconscious. This is an advantage because details about a person’s past are often unclear, irrelevant, misleading and misremembered. However, it does seem obvious that a person’s medical history should be taken into consideration as there may be biological explanations, e.g. excess dopamine, for their behaviour.
Many psychologists would see this narrow focus as a weakness. They might object that you may well change the client’s surface thoughts but you won’t be addressing the underlying cause of the abnormality. There may also be medical, environmental and cultural influences affecting a person’s behaviour. Focussing only on a person’s cognition may be too narrow an approach.
Cognitive psychology has been influenced by developments in computer science and analogies are often made between how a computer processes information and how the human brain processes information. However, we should keep in mind that the human brain is far more sophisticated than a computer, and that we are also influenced by past experiences and by our cultural experiences. Most cognitive research takes place under laboratory conditions and focuses on specific rather than general problems; this may make the research findings limited in their application in real-life settings.
Despite these weaknesses, the cognitive approach has proved useful in researching, describing and understanding human behaviour. Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study of eyewitness testimony reveals how memory can be distorted by post-event information, i.e. information supplied after an event. This research demonstrated that memory is not merely a tape recording of events but is a dynamic process that can be influenced by information such as leading questions. These findings have had a powerful influence in the ‘real world’.
Finally, cognitive therapies, especially when used together with behavioural therapy, have a good success rate in helping clients. It is a popular and much-used approach. It also empowers the individual to take responsibility for his own thinking processes by monitoring, evaluating and altering self-defeating thought processes.
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY
An examination essential
Describe how the cognitive approach has been applied in one form of therapy in psychology.
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) was developed by Albert Ellis (1955) who renamed it Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT). Like other cognitive psychologists, Ellis believed that changing the ways in which we think will help change our feelings, attitudes and behaviour. Ellis recognised that past events do influence people’s behaviour but felt it was more effective to focus on their current thinking patterns.
According to Ellis, when we think rationally, we behave rationally, and as a consequence, we are happy, competent and effective. However, people with psychological problems indoctrinate themselves with a series of assumptions, which ultimately lead them to develop irrational thoughts. Irrational thoughts lead to irrational behaviour.
Some people hold irrational beliefs, such as “Everybody in the world hates me.” Some indulge in ‘mustabation’ thinking they ‘must’ do something or else they will be a failure, e.g. “I must get As in every exam.” Some make huge over-generalisations (called ‘awfulizing) – ‘I didn’t pass my driving test, so I must be stupid.”
Some people will endlessly ‘damn’ themselves, seeing themselves as no good in every situation. REBT encourages clients to develop an unconditional acceptance of themselves, and recognise that everybody makes mistakes sometimes.
It is the task of cognitive therapists to challenge directly the negative assumptions people make through their thinking. Clients are encouraged to monitor and challenge their negative, automatic thoughts, and to accept more rational explanations of their own experience and behaviour. The therapy also encourages clients to eases their beliefs and goals, and to consider ways in which realistic goals can be achieved.
Because therapists using REBT are attempting to change thinking patterns, they tend to be more argumentative and confrontational with their clients than in other forms of therapy, such as psychoanalysis.
REBT seems to be most effective in treating excessive anger, depression and anti-social behaviour. REBT also reduces generalised anxiety and examination anxiety. However, it is not useful with clients suffering from severe thought disorders. It has also proved effective in helping healthy people cope with the stresses of everyday living.
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY
An examination essential
Describe how the cognitive approach has been applied in one form of therapy in psychology, e.g. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is based on the idea that our thoughts influence our feelings and our feelings in turn influence our behaviour. In other words, how we think about a situation, influences how we feel about a situation, and this affects how we behave and react in any given situation. CBT assumes that it not external things such as people, situations and events that control our behaviour, but how we think, and then how we feel about them.
CBT encourages clients to monitor and challenge their negative thoughts, irrational assumptions and disordered thinking about a situation, and then to change their behaviour in response to this fresh, rational thinking. CBT also teaches the client coping skills and new ways of reacting to situations rather than meeting them with the same old negative thought patterns. According to Albert Ellis (REBT), when we think rationally, we behave rationally, and as a consequence, we are happy, competent and effective.
CBT is a joint-enterprise between therapist and client. The therapist seeks to discover what the client wants out of life, the client’s goals, and then tries to help the client achieve these goals, often by clarifying the behaviour required, the options available, and the possible routes to achieving these goals. The client’s role is to be frank about his worries and concerns, to reflect on what he is learning during therapy, and to put these lessons into action. One of the main skills the client must learn during CBT is self-counselling; therefore, CBT therapists focus on rational self-counselling skills. These are aimed at encouraging the client to take responsibility for his own life, now and in the future. Relaxation techniques may also be taught.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is briefer than many other forms of therapy, for example psychotherapy that can take years. In fact, the average number of sessions a client will receive is 16 sessions. CBT is often time-limited; at the start of the therapy, client and therapist agree when the formal therapy will end. This is possible because the CBT therapist offers ‘instruction’ to the client, and also sets regular ‘homework’ assignments that must be completed on time. For example, the therapist will set reading assignments and encourage his clients to practise the skills and techniques studied during the therapy sessions.
CBT can be used alone or in conjunction with medication. CBT has proved effective with many conditions, including depressive disorders, disorders, agoraphobia, generalised disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, bulimia, and .
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
An examination essential
Describe how the cognitive approach has been applied to one theory in psychology.
Attribution theory suggests that when we see a person behaving in a way we do not understand, we try to work out in our minds why he is behaving that way. In other words, we try to attribute reasons for his behaviour. We then go on and try to predict the consequences of his behaviour, i.e. what is going to happen next.
According to Kelley (1967, 1973), when we are making these attributions, we follow a set of rules. Firstly, we try to decide whether the individual is responsible for his own actions, secondly, whether someone else is responsible and thirdly, whether the situation itself is the cause of the person’s behaviour. No matter what the cause, Kelley believes that we will try to work out what is happening, and in order to this, we need more information.
Kelley (1973) distinguished between dispositional attribution (that’s the kind of person who would behave that way), and situational attribution (he did it because of the situation he was in). For example, we would not expect a kind person to behave in a cruel way because we know they have a kind disposition. So we would try to explain their behaviour in terms of the situation they were in. Kelley proposed that when we have sufficient information, we can detect the co-variation of the person’s behaviour and its possible causes. We can then work out the causes of the behaviour and its consequences.
Kelley (1973) recognised that we sometimes we apply the discounting rule. According to this rule, if there is strong evidence that the situation is responsible for someone’s behaviour, then we will tend to ignore evidence pointing towards a dispositional attribution.
Kelley’s theory has been criticized because we sometimes make attributions about the behaviour of other people very rapidly, e.g. on ‘gut instinct’ and ignore the co-variation information. Our attributions may also be influenced by our attitude towards the individual; for example, we will give a friend the benefit of the doubt and say the situation was to blame, not him, even if the evidence points to the contrary.
