Overall, this view broadens the focus and helps to understand how societal influences contribute to Child Abuse; thus providing implications for social policy to tackle the issue. However, it fails to explain why some people abuse and others don’t.
b) Social Structural Perspective
It relates Child Abuse to the maintenance of general inequality in northern industrialised societies.
Gil (1970) stated that Child Abuse was class related and his later work put forth a broader definition which laid the blame on the State over and above the person who actually abuses. Parton (1985) lent support to this opinion.
This model does justice to the fact that Physical Child Abuse has a close association with deprivation but it does not address the aetiology of Child Sexual Abuse and fails to consider that not all poor people abuse.
c) Feminist Perspective
This point of view was articulated by several writers in the United Kingdom and USA, chiefly on Child Sexual Abuse. Abuse is seen as an extreme example of institutionalised male power over females which needs tackling at societal and the individual level.
It is less clear-cut with Physical Abuse and Neglect and puts forth the theory that women’s violence to children is much more likely to be stress related than that of men with motherhood (product of patriarchy) exacerbating the already existing stresses placed on women looking after children.
It opens up a new dimension but there is a danger that it would be used in a reductionist and exclusive way.
d) Children’s Rights Perspective
Freeman identified two main schools:-
Protectionist - essentially argues that children have the right to protection from their parents by outside bodies when at risk.
Liberationist - more recent point of view, derived mainly from the field of education. Holt (1974) held the view that children should have exactly the same rights as adults.
The Cleveland Report and The Children Act are both halfway between these two viewpoints.
These two schools compel us to consider matters from the child’s point of view as an individual and points to changes in the status of children at a societal level as a solution to the widespread problem of Child Abuse. However, most children cannot be seen in isolation from their parents because of their dependence on them.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
a) Individual Interactionist Approach
The key defining feature is that behaviour is seen to be determined less by intrapersonal factors and more by interactions between people. Greater attention is placed on the dynamics of current relationships including taking into account the child’s and the spouse/ partner’s contribution to situations of abuse (Kadushin & Martin, 1981).
This, again, offers another dimension but individuals are seen in isolation from wider social influences and stresses.
b) Family Dysfunction Theory
This is a broader focus as it is concerned with the impact of family dynamics on the behaviour of its members. This theory is of relatively recent origin from the field of psychiatry and has less widespread influence as an explanatory theory for Physical Abuse than for Child Sexual Abuse. Concern is on the here and now dynamics of family life and ways of breaking or changing patterns of behaviour.
It is much more limited in explaining the reason why families function in the way that they do and focuses too much on the family as a closed system cut off from wider systems or social influences.
c) Social Ecological Perspective
Germain & Gitterman (1980) defined it as an approach which believed that human behaviour was influenced or determined by the context in which a person lives rather than purely by intra or interpersonal factors. In Child Abuse, it is hypothesised that where environmental conditions are unfavourable to families, the incidence of abuse is likely to be higher.
Garbarino found that official reported abuse was higher in those neighbourhoods where indicators of social stress, population mobility and poverty were highest (Garbarino & Crouter, 1978) with isolation from possible support systems (Garbarino & Sherman, 1980).
This view shifts the focus from individual pathology to the influence of the immediate environment level although it fails to pay much attention to prevailing political factors.
SOCIO-BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Revte (1987) pointed out that animals abuse their young in circumstances where there are aberrations or disturbances such as poor attachment or environmental stresses.Sociobiologists have applied these principles to the issue of step and substitute parenting and Child Abuse.
Instinct plays a part in certain behaviours and it is a variable not to be overlooked or completely dismissed. However, one should guard against unthinking and indiscriminate use of such theory.
C. Consequences of Child Abuse
A number of studies have looked at the short and long-term sequelae of Child Abuse in terms of emotional, social and intellectual functioning.
Long-term effects in terms of general life experiences and outlook found significantly higher degrees of alcoholism, divorce and occupational stress among abused boys (McCord, 1983). Elmer (1977) however, had found no consistent pattern of linkage between current behaviour and early abuse. Long-term mental health can also be seriously affected in some individuals especially following Sexual Abuse.
Mrajek & Mrajek (1987) listed 12 factors that could account for resilient survival behaviours; some linked to situational circumstances (formation of positive relationships with people outside the family and access to good educational and health facilities).
D. Practical Aspects
a) Prevention and Prediction
Gough (1988) considers the issue of prevention at three levels:
targeted at the whole population;
targeted at certain communities;
targeted at certain groups of families.
Sociological studies have demonstrated that it is possible to predict between two-thirds and four-fifths of known future abuse although there are obvious ethical considerations to be borne in mind.
b) Assessment and Decision-Making
In the shorter term, these take place at interdisciplinary case conferences.
Longer term decisions are reached to monitor families, provide support services and review progress at a later date. In a small number of cases, difficult decisions have to be made about whether it is best for children to remain with their families and, if so, under what circumstances, with what services and safeguards.
Sociological studies are being attempted to try and evaluate this process.
In conclusion, I would like to highlight the following:
Although defining Child Abuse has been a difficult issue, prominent influences emerge from sociological views with some legal initiatives being introduced.
Endeavouring to understand ‘why’ abuse of children takes place serves three main functions:
- It gives a greater sense of control to the worker over events.
- It gives a sense of direction for on-going work or treatment.
- It informs policy-makers in the field.
The broad range of theories outlined along with those from psychological theorists are not always in agreement. Currently there is an impetus to move towards more integrative approaches which try to combine various perspectives and provide a more comprehensive account (Garbarino, 1977; Belsky, 1980).
The findings on consequences of Abuse have been conflicting and need more systematic research.
Preventative strategies have huge sociological potential by the use of community education programmes, dealing with deprived areas and targeting interventions towards families at risk.
Assessment and decision-making have had a number of changes following the 1989 Children Act (which included the Child Assessment Order, Section 43), ‘Protecting Children - A Guide for Social Workers undertaking a Comprehensive Assessment’ (DOH, 1988) and ‘Working Together’ guidelines (DOH, 1991).
Thus,sociological studies have had enormous impact on every aspect of this field and will continue to do so in the future especially because it remains one of the most prominent areas of work for Social Workers.
REFERENCES
Maguire.M., Morgan.R. & Reiner.R.; Oxford Handbook of Criminology(Second Ed.);
Oxford University Press;1997
Corby, B.; Child Abuse: Towards A Knowledge Base;
Open University Press, 1993.
Gunn, J. & Taylor, P.J.; Forensic Psychiatry;
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., 1993.
