Nazi Germany Revision 1918-45

The Rise of Hitler and the Nazis

• Hitler and the origins of the German Workers’ Party. Small, Bavarian party with radical nationalist and ‘socialist’ policies, one of many small political parties in the chaotic political scene after 1918.  Hitler joined in 1919, appointed head of propaganda.  Hitler was a very effective public speaker.  Main themes of speeches were – Germany’s weak government and the ineffectiveness of the Weimar political system; hatred of the Allies and Versailles; opposition to communists and socialists; opposition to Jewish influence in society and politics.
• Changes and developments in the party, 1920-22.  ‘Twenty-Five Point Programme’, 1920 – a broad range of policies.  Hitler became leader in 1920.  Party re-named ‘National Socialist German Workers’ Party’ – Nazis.  Increasingly attracted a following in Bavaria, even among the respectable classes.  Storm troopers (SA) – used to protect Nazi meetings, disrupt those of opponents, and march in processions.  Key Nazis – Rohm (1919), Goebbels (1922), Goering (1922), Himmler (1923).  By 1923 the party had 3,000 members.  Very vocal party.
• Causes, events and consequences of the Munich Putsch, 1923.  Hitler was determined to make a bid for power (inspired by Mussolini’s 1922 ‘March on Rome’).  Hitler judged that the Nazis could tap into strong anti-Weimar feeling (esp. after Stresemann’s plans to re-start reparations payments), he felt that he would have the support from right-wing forces in the police and army.  He enlisted the support of war-hero Ludendorff.  Confident that he had the support of the right-wing head of the Bavarian government, Kahr (on 8 Nov Hitler had hi-jacked a political meeting in a Munich Beer Hall, and there declared the start of the revolution), the Nazis marched into Munich on 9 Nov.  But the police and army did not support the rising and the march was shot down by the Bavarian police (16 Nazis killed).  Hitler arrested, put on trial and imprisoned.  Key consequences – Hitler’s trial allowed a public forum for speeches; Hitler’s imprisonment weakened the party; in the following years the party lost support as it was seen as too radical and violent (in the two elections of 1924 the Nazi members in the Reichstag decreased from 32 seats to 14); Hitler wrote ‘Mein Kampf’ while in prison; Hitler changed the political path for the Nazis, who would now work to gain power through democratic means rather than revolution – “we must hold our noses and enter the Reichstag”.

• Reorganization of the Nazi Party, 1924-28.  The aftermath of the putsch attempt caused short-term chaos and weakness in the party, especially with Hitler imprisoned.  On his release Hitler worked to broaden the appeal of the party.  The core messages were the same but there was particular focus on winning more recruits.  The Youth and Student wing of the party was established, evening classes were set up and branches of the party established in different areas of Germany – the party became a more national organization.   Membership of the party rose to over 100,000 by 1928.  In 1928 the Nazis only won 12 Reichstag seats – 2.6% of the vote; this was a low point.  From 1928 the party began to work to gain the support of the middle class, small business owners, shopkeepers and small farmers.  Goebbels’ propaganda.  Establishment of the SS, 1925 – Hitler’s personal body guard.  
• Impact of the Depression on Germany (economic and political); reasons for increase in support for the Nazi Party, 1930-32.  Loans from USA called back in.  The economy floundered, unemployment rose swiftly (1928 – 1 million; 1931 – 3 million; 1932 – 6 million).  1931 - Five major banks collapsed.  Political chaos – failure of government policies (taxes raised, government spending cut, many state employees made redundant); government looked ineffective – many blamed the weaknesses of the constitution for ineffective government, the reparations were seen as making the situation worse.  The economic problems led to a rise in political extremism (more people looked to the radical parties, both ‘Left’ and ‘Right’ as possible solutions to the problems.  Governments unable to control the Reichstag (Presidential ‘Emergency Powers’ (Article 48) were increasingly used from 1931).  In 1931 the Reichstag was suspended for a while as it became unworkable.
• Gaining support - Nazi messages, methods and actions, 1929-32.  The reorganization of the Nazi Party in the years 1925-28 now produced results.  The key change was the economic and political climate had altered which made more people willing to accept possible radical solutions to Germany’s problems.  The Nazi Party seemed fresh and dynamic.  It was able to gain increasing support between 1930-32 because……. – (see Lacey, p50;  Walsh, p.153-155).  Electoral successes – Reichstag elections – 1930 – 107 seats (18.3%);  July 1932 – 230 seats (37.3%)  (see Lacey, p.50);  Presidential election, April 1932 – Hitler polled 13 million votes, coming second to Hindenburg (19 million) – this showed the personal popularity of Hitler.  By mid-1932 the Nazis were the single largest political force in Germany, although they did not win a Reichstag majority.
• Events of 1932 to January 1933 (Elections, political turmoil and other political developments from Bruning to von Papen and von Schleicher).  Political chaos worsened; Article 48 used extensively.  Presidential Election, April 1932 – Hindenburg re-elected.  Following July 1932 Reichstag Election Hitler demanded to be made Chancellor in a Nazi-led government; Hindenburg would not allow him this.  Von Papen tried to form a right-wing coalition but was unable to do so without the support of the Nazis.  Nazis turned the Reichstag into an unworkable body which could not function.  Fresh elections called for November – Nazi vote decreased – 196 seats (33.1%) – for a short while it looked as though the Nazis might have missed their chance for power.  Von Schleicher government proved ineffective; in response von Papen struck a deal with Hitler to help form a right-wing government with Hitler as Chancellor and 2 other Nazis in the Cabinet.  Von Papen hoped to use Hitler as a puppet through which he could govern.  Hindenburg was persuaded – Hitler became Chancellor on 30 Jan 1933.

Nazi consolidation of power, 1933-34

Formation of government under Chancellor Hitler, 30 January 1933.  Torch-light parades by SA.  Belief among right-wing politicians that Hitler lacked political ability and could be controlled; the Nazi numbers in the Reichstag could then be used to govern more effectively.  But Hitler was not prepared to do this and worked to establish a Nazi dictatorship.  New Reichstag elections called for 5 March (Hitler hoped to win a majority)

• Reichstag Fire, Emergency Powers, March 1933 Election, Enabling Law.  Emergency powers used to control political meetings.  SA used as auxiliary police by the Nazis to disrupt opponent’s political rallies.  Reichstag Fire – 27 Feb 1933 – Communists blamed (van der Lubbe); 4,000 Communists arrested.  Widespread Emergency Powers granted by Hindenburg to Hitler to search, arrest, prevent political meetings, etc.;  The Nazis now had control of the government resources to assist in their election campaign (e.g. control of radio, police), now also used direct intimidation during the election process.  Reichstag election, March 1933 – 288 seats (43.9%) - not a majority. Communists banned.   Enabling Act, March 1933 – passed by 444 votes to 94; SPD opposed it.  (How was it passed?)    Enabling Act was the legal basis of dictatorial power for the Nazis.
• The ‘Nazi Revolution’ – establishment of Nazi influence in all branches of government.  Civil Service, Courts and state schools had Jews and other opponents sacked.  Restrictions on Trade Unions.  Trade Unions banned, May 1933.  Establishment of the One-Party State, July 1933(Nazi Party the only legal political party in Germany).  Jan 1934 - all state government structures brought under direct Nazi control.
• Night of the Long Knives, June 1934. Arrest and execution of the more radical influences in the Nazi party, largely those under the influence of Ernst Rohm (leader of the SA).  Why? – to secure Hitler’s unchallenged position as head of the Nazi Party;  to remove the ‘thuggish’ element of the SA now Hitler needed to present a more respectable front once in power;  to prevent pressure building from some Nazis to introduce more radical policies;  to appeal to the Army commanders; to appeal to ‘big business’.
• Death of President Hindenburg, August 1934 - Hitler now declared as ‘Der Fuhrer’.  Confirmed in a public vote (plebiscite).  The Army and Judges now had to swear an oath of loyalty direct to Hitler as the Head of State (both President and Chancellor combined).

Nazi rule, methods of control, and impact on German people, 1933-45  

Use of the Police State.  Regular police brought under the control of the Nazis.  But key aspects of the police state were developed under the SS, which was greatly expanded once the Nazis came to power.  SS, Gestapo (secret police), concentration camps, control of judicial system (courts), use of informers.

• Use of Propaganda as a means of control.  Josef Goebbels ‘Minister of Propaganda and Enlightenment’.  April 1933 public burning of books of ‘undesirable’ views.  Nazi control of all forms of media (newspapers, printers, radios, films) – non-Nazi publications closed down, Nazi editors put in place, Nazi controlled film bureau, cheap radios (the ‘People’s Receiver’) allowed the Nazi message to enter the vast majority of homes.  Rallies and celebrations all preached the same message of Nazi supremacy and German greatness – Nuremberg rallies.  Nazis controlled all cultural aspects – art, music, literature, theatres, etc.; - through the ‘Reich Chamber of Culture’.  Berlin Olympics, 1936 – event used by the Nazis to showpiece what had been achieved in Germany.
• Dealing with opposition.  All political parties, except the Nazis, were banned.  Trade Unions were banned (instead all workers had to join the Nazi-led ‘German Labour Front’ – a ‘union’ which oversaw workers in the interests of the government).  All clubs and societies were brought under Nazi control.  1933-34 saw considerable moves to eliminate opposition groups – e.g. arrest of communists and socialists, use of concentration camps for critics and opponents.  No freedom of the press; no freedom of expression; no public meetings (unless approved by the Nazis).  Army commanders brought under Hitler’s control – dismissal of two top commanders in 1937.  Any form of criticism could attract the attention of the Gestapo and perhaps even a spell in a concentration camp.  (Also see material on opposition during the war years.)
• Policies towards women.  A woman’s place was to bear, raise and nurture ‘good’ German children, who were to be brought up to follow Nazi ideas.  Women’s organisations were to develop child-care techniques, home crafts, etc.;   Marriage Loan, 1933.  German ‘Mother’s Cross’ was awarded to women who produced many children.  Married women were sacked from government employment (civil service, teaching, etc.;).  Birth rates did increase from 15 per thousand in 1933 to 20 in 1939.  (Youth organisations for girls focused on fitness for motherhood and related skills.)  But the Nazis also wanted an increases workforce in industry in the later part of the 1930s and into the war years – women were therefore encouraged (even compelled in some cases by 1943) to work.  Was such a policy incompatible with the policy of increasing the birth-rate?
• Policies towards young people – Youth Groups.  All youth groups were brought under the control of the Hitler Youth organisation.  The focus was on raising German children fit for the Nazi era and for the next generation of people in this ‘Thousand Year Reich’.  For girls (Young Girls’ League, 10-13; League of German Maidens, 14-18) the focus was on preparation for motherhood – e.g. domestic skills.  For boys (‘Pimfen’ Cubs, 6-10;  Young German Boys, 10-13;  Hitler Youth, 14-18)  the focus was on preparation for military service – outdoor exercises, camping, physical strength, war games, crafts and skills.  By 1939 membership of the Hitler Youth was compulsory for all children aged 14-18.  Political education focused on the needs of the German people and the ‘Volksgemeinschaft’ – Peoples’ Unity).
• Policies towards young people - Schools and Education policies.  The school curriculum was very heavily modified to fit to Nazi ideology; there was great emphasis on increasing physical fitness (PE was given much greater time), promoting understanding in German culture and history, and the military elements of science.  Jewish teachers were sacked.  Jews were segregated in schools after 1933 and then banned from state-funded schools after 1935.  Specialist ‘Adolf Hitler’ schools were formed to educate the strongest boys in matters of leadership and Nazism.
• Policies towards Jews and other persecuted groups.  The trend was an escalation (increase in intensity) of action against ‘undesirable’ groups.  April 1933 – national boycott of Jewish shops organised by the Nazis.  Jews sacked from civil service and schools.  1935 Nuremberg Laws – denied Jews rights of citizenship (denied the vote, denied state schooling, etc.), banned marriages between Jews and non-Jews.  1938 Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) – destruction of Jewish shops, homes and synagogues; arrests of 20,000 Jews, seizure of Jewish businesses and assets – such actions prompted a wave of Jewish emigration.  (See below for persecution policies during the Second World War.)
• Policies towards the Churches.  Ultimate Nazi goal was to replace all existing religious organisations and religions with a Nazi controlled ‘German Faith Movement’ based on pagan-style beliefs.  But this could not be achieved swiftly, religious beliefs and organisations were too deep-rooted in much of society.  1933 Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church – the Nazis would not interfere in the organisation of the Church as long as the Church kept out of politics.  All Protestant Churches were supposed to unite under one ‘Reich Church’ led by Bishop Muller.  As time passed various policies were introduced to increase Nazi control over the Churches – 1935 Department for Church Affairs established;  1935-36 arrest of Protestant ministers and Catholic priests and monks critical of the Nazis; Church groups and Church schools undermined, Church schools abolished in 1939.    But the Nazis could never really control religious groups and some individuals became critics of the regime (see Cardinal Galen, Martin Niemoller, Dietrich Boenhoffer  - Lacey, p.96-97;  Walsh, p.163)
• The Economy and policies to reduce unemployment.  Unemployment did reduce from nearly 6 million in late-1932, 1million in 1937, to ‘virtually zero’ in 1939.  Methods used included military expansion (with conscription introduced in 1935); work creation schemes (building programmes, autobahns), compulsory ‘National Labour Service’ for all young people and unemployed; (it must also be remembered that those in camps were not counted in unemployment statistics).  In 1936 the ‘Four Year Plan’ was introduced by Goering to oversee conversion to a ‘war economy’ through the method of ‘self-sufficiency’ (‘Autarky’); imports were carefully controlled and raw materials were organised.  Wages remained relatively low, partly because of government intervention.

The impact of the Second World War on Germany, 1939-45

• The German Home Front.  Not much impact on standards of living in the first two years of war, although rationing on many items was introduced from 1939.  However, impact of allied bombing intensified from 1942 – cities such as Hamburg, Berlin, the Ruhr, and Dresden were affected badly by bombing.  From 1943 a policy of ‘Total War’ was developed – whole economy and society geared to the war effort, mobilisation of the workforce.  Shortages of food and other necessities affected civilians as the war progressed, particularly from 1944 onwards.  
• Escalation of policies against Jews (arrests, deportations, ghettos, death squads, the Final Solution and death camps).  Invasions to the East led to establishment of ghettoes; 1941 SS ‘Special Action Sqauds’ (Einsatzgruppen) used in occupied territories to elimate Jews;  1942 Wannsee Conference – introduced the ‘Final Solution’ (the systematic methods and infrastructure of the Holocaust in Death Camps, e.g. Auschwitz).  Germany’s Jews were rounded up and deported (nearly all were murdered).
• Growth of opposition to the Nazis (and examples).  Increased opposition to the Nazis from 1942 as the war began to go badly.  Groups of senior figures in society (some church leaders, aristocrats, army officers) formed the ‘Kreisau Circle’, a group determined to remove Nazi rule and negotiate a peace with the Allies.  This led to the ‘July Bomb Plot’ of 1944 (Stauffenberg Plot).  Youth resistance – White Rose, Edelweiss Pirates, etc.  The Nazi regime took harsh counter-measures against any form of resistance.  As the war progressed the Nazi regime became more repressive, increasing arrests, more extreme propaganda.
• Allied invasion and downfall of Nazi rule.  From 1944 Germany was under great pressure in the war.  Germany faced a war on two-fronts after June 1944.  Germany’s situation was perilous, especially once the Soviet armies were on the march from the East.  Huge fear at the possibility of a Soviet occupation led to a large scale refugee crisis by 1945.  Battle for Berlin, April 1945.  Hitler’s death – suicide in the Chancellery bunker, 30 April 1945.  8 May 1945 ceasefire signed – end of the war.  Nazi regime collapsed.