Violence against women by their husbands or other male members of their family has existed in almost every human society throughout history. In all parts of the world, women are left alone and also they are deprived of societal support when they face with violence. Violence against women is an important social mechanism that makes women be in the second position compared to that of men's. Many psychologists and psychiatrists claim that women subjected to physical violence typically 'lose their personalities' and feel shame and helplessness and that many of them were in need of psychiatric help.1 Domestic violence has affected many families for several decades and it still dominates our society today. Each year, there is an increase in the number of the cases of domestic violence, which is defined as; "intentional, hostile, aggressive physical or psychological acts with marital or intimate relationship in the house"2 Violence against women in Turkey is a serious problem as it is in all other parts of the world. This study primarily concerns the silent female victim of domestic violence, who has so far been selectively ignored in Turkey.
Discussion of domestic violence was led in Turkey in the 1980s by the newly emerging feminist movement, which launched the first significant campaign against domestic violence in 1987 entitled, 'Cry, Let Everyone Hear You'. Although conservatives defend the traditional view of domestic violence expressed through sayings, such as 'beating comes from Heaven' or 'a rose grows where a man hits', awareness is growing in society at large that domestic violence is unacceptable. To give examples, research studies have been carried out, volunteer advocates have defended increasing number of domestic violence victims and legal measures have been taken.3
According to research led by the General Directorate of Women's Status and Problems, 97% of women experience domestic violence, including women living in slum housing. Physical violence was reported in 34% of families and psychological violence in 53%. Among university-educated women, 45% said they had been humiliated by husbands, 30% by being forced to have sexual intercourse against their will and 15% by being forced to engage in forms of sexual intercourse they did not enjoy. However in slums, 65% of women reported being humiliated by husbands in front of friends and relatives.
The study also showed that 80% of women had been subjected at some point to physical violence by their husbands. Regarding the nature of the abuse, 60% involved the husband beating by hand while in 40% of cases a stick, hanger, scissors, or other implement was also used. It is also important to note that 90% of physical violence by husbands took place within the first three years of marriage. What is more interesting, in families living in slums, 30% of men who admitted using physical violence excused their actions as a response to inadequate housework or not finding wives in the house when they came home. While 15% of perpetrators cited jealousy, 55% blamed nervousness and being easily provoked for using physical violence.4
In our culture and other cultures with similar characteristics, attributes of leadership and dominance are reinforced in men, while the virtues of patience and servitude are expected of women and naturally the inevitable outcome is that men have a great deal of control over women's lives. Additionally, because of society tolerating family violence, the pressure coming from the society and women perceiving this kind of violence as a natural thing prevents them from insisting on their rights. They do not seek help because they believe that domestic violence should remain a private matter. Most of the time, it ...
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In our culture and other cultures with similar characteristics, attributes of leadership and dominance are reinforced in men, while the virtues of patience and servitude are expected of women and naturally the inevitable outcome is that men have a great deal of control over women's lives. Additionally, because of society tolerating family violence, the pressure coming from the society and women perceiving this kind of violence as a natural thing prevents them from insisting on their rights. They do not seek help because they believe that domestic violence should remain a private matter. Most of the time, it is expected from women not to voice their objections in the name of 'protecting the institution of marriage'.
One has to think about what lies behind this 'institution of marriage', because in all of the events we witness, if these words become real, the result is the degrading and despising of women. 'A happy family', where women are disregarded. This can only be possible in a patriarchal form of family. For some thinkers, marital conflict occurs because of the power structure in the family. When conflict comes about in an unbalanced way, there is much more risk for violence in the marriage as a result of unbalanced power. "The feminist theorists hold that male dominance ideology is the key factor underlying wife abuse."5 Moreover, the feminist theorists say that in a patriarchal society, a woman is expected to live due to her husband's expectations, and that results in marriage conflict. The husbands in the same way have many expectations from society that pressure them to maintain dominance and control over their family. "Men learn violent techniques and inappropriate contexts their use through a male culture that condones for their use of violence."6 Therefore, in Turkey to maintain this "male culture", a kind of particular system or a particular mode of thinking should be protected and should be kept alive. The thing that wanted to be protected is the "institution of traditional family" and the patriarchal structure. In this kind of a structure, a woman who has been a victim of family violence and who has decided to voice an objection, should first accept the risk of divorcing. If she does not, and most of the time it becomes the case, as many women do not have any guarantee, then it would not have been possible for her to use the rights existing in the criminal codes.
At this point, there will be an emphasis on the reaction of the police when women go to the police stations for help and another emphasis on the existing limited and inadequate legal actions against domestic violence in the Criminal Code. A female judge from Istanbul 4th Court of the Peace stated that women are also subjected to violence at police stations; she claimed that 'women are subjected to violence at home'. When they go to the police stations for help, they are also subjected to violence there.7 This means that while trying to escape from a violent home, they go to another place where violence exists. Assuming that children, relatives or neighbours call the police station, either the police arrive late or the victim does not complain to police against her husband. Even if the woman goes to the police, the reaction is to discourage the victim (e.g. 'he is your husband, this happens in every family, do not exaggerate' or 'what will you do after divorce without money'?). Although police training programmes held at various universities may help to change attitudes in the long term, so far little improvement has been recorded.
As for the existing legal actions against domestic violence, there are a few to mention. Article 478 of the Turkish Criminal Code states that prosecution for battery and ill treatment within a marriage depends on the complaint of the victim. This requires women victims of violence to complain at a police station, then to find eyewitnesses, to insist on being sent to a forensic institute, to pursue the legal process and obtain documentary evidence. Frequently, even if a woman is hospitalised, police and hospital minutes are not well documented and a health report is not detailed. Even if a case is launched, in domestic cases the husband is generally not charged with attempted murder. Implementation of Article 438, requiring a prison sentence of up to 30 months, has therefore proved difficult. Moreover, seven-day prison sentences have been handed down, doing little to deter perpetrators of domestic violence.8
The 1998 Law on the Protection of the Family also concerns domestic violence, regulating protection decisions by the Judge of the Court of Peace upon complaints of women or child victims of domestic violence and measures that can be taken against the non-compliance of perpetrators. The Law requires the perpetrator to leave the home and be dismissed from the workplace for a certain period of time. In case of non-compliance with the protective measure, he is to be sentenced to between three and six months' imprisonment.9 This law represents a step forward, but implementation has proved almost impossible because of the attitudes of police officers detailed above.
In terms of the support and assistance for victims, Purple Roof is worth mentioning, as it is the first independent non-governmental women's shelter. It was founded in 1990 and received a significant amount of attention from the mass media and women's circles. Violence against women in the family has kept its place on the agenda ever since. In 1995, it set up a Women's Consultation Centre and a Women's Shelter, offering psychological and legal advice as well as employment and accommodation. However, due to lack of funding, it closed down in 1999. Although the shelter no longer exists, the Foundation continues to provide legal and psychological support for women. The Turkish government is indifferent and even opposed to these shelters, all of which can be considered as a first step towards protecting women against domestic violence.10 The Government neither establishes one on its own, nor it helps an establishing one. Also women should be educated more about domestic violence. Women should not accept their role in society as low status individuals. Instead, they need to be strong individuals. They need to get more education so they can achieve their independence. The struggle should continue on many other fronts against the male dominated ideas that are responsible for psychological, emotional and sexual violence.
In conclusion, women in Turkey suffer from domestic violence a lot, as most of the women in different parts of the world. Although the women policy that is practiced in the first years of our Republic is criticised by some female researchers as being 'state feminism', it actually became the creator of the 'Turkish Women Movement', which gradually became stronger starting from the 1970s and 1980s. By looking at the statistics mentioned at the beginning, one may conclude that marriage registration is considered as a 'document that gives permission to battering'11 It is mostly because of the inappropriate legal arrangements that exist both in our Criminal Code and the Civil Code. Some of the articles in these codes show how widespread the kinds of understandings coming from the Middle Ages. The Middle Age understanding getting more and more stronger plays a role in the encouragement of honour crimes. Unless this kind of perceiving changes, it is difficult to prevent the domestic violence. However the improvements in the laws are also not enough by their own to change this social condition. The solution lies in the creation of social, economic, cultural and psychological conditions in which women who suffer from domestic violence can increase their awareness about violence and find in themselves the power to oppose to it. Unfortunately, in the absence of these conditions, women will continue to suffer from domestic violence.
What is more, in Turkey, it is neither the business of the women's movements, nor the women's institutions or foundations to determine the position of women. The power of these efforts is limited only to create a public opinion. The status of women in the society should be seen as a situation of social inequality that needs absolutely to be solved and the state should shoulder this responsibility, which means all the legal channels should be open.
"Aile ici siddetin sebep ve sonuclari" (Aralik 1993-Aralik 1994)
T.C.Basbakanlik Aile Arastirma, Ankara 1995, p.22
2 Dobash, R.Emerson. "Women, Violence and Social Change". London: Routledge, 1992, p. 12
3"Aile ici siddetin sebep ve sonuclari" (Aralik 1993-Aralik 1994)
T.C.Basbakanlik Aile Arastirma, Ankara 1995, p 35
4 Dobash, R.Emerson. "Women, Violence and Social Change". London: Routledge, 1992, p. 125
5 Dobash, R.Emerson. "Women, Violence and Social Change". London: Routledge, 1992, p. 311
6 Dobash, R.Emerson. "Women, Violence and Social Change". London: Routledge, 1992, p. 310
7 Yildirim, Aysel. "Siradan Siddet: Kadin ve Çocuga Yönelik Siddetin Toplumsal Kaynaklari", Boyut, Istanbul, 1998, p.48.
8 "Türkiye'de Anne ve Çocuklarin Durum Analizi". UNICEF; Ankara, 1991, p.86.
9 "Türkiye'de Anne ve Çocuklarin Durum Analiz"'. UNICEF; Ankara, 1991, p.90.
0 "Türkiye'de Anne ve Çocuklarin Durum Analiz"'. UNICEF; Ankara, 1991, p.121.
1 Kalan, Ilknur. " Kadin ve Adalet". Istanbul: 1998, p104.
