Italaian Unification Notes

Victor Emmanuel and Cavour

• Emmanuel - cautious
• Emmanuel's main aim – speed up Piedmont's recovery, wanted to fight Austria, extend Piedmontese influence in Italy with the idea of nationalism
• Cavour (1852) – became prime minister
• he was no revolutionary, believed in parliamentary institutions, no faith in full democracy, opposed Mazzini's republicanism, supported traditional Piedmontese aims to free Italy from Austrian influence and strengthen Piedmont by annexing territory in north and central Italy
• realized they needed foreign help – 1855 – Piedmont joined Britain and France in the Crimean War (did not get the support he wanted, but made important contacts)
• Crimean War left Austria isolated (Britain, France and Russia were angry at her)
• Napoleon III wanted to help Italy (did not want to create a strong unified Italy)
• 1858 – Plombiéres – (secret treaty) Cavour would provoke Austria into war, France would send troops to help Piedmont to help them take over Lombardy and Venetia. France would take Savoy and Nice (Cavour hoped to annex the central Italian states, Napoleon wanted to form a separate central Italian kingdom (ruled by his cousin))

The First War of Italian Liberation

• 1859 April 29 – Austria declared war
• proclamation by Emmanuel – limited effect, however France came to help
• war provoked popular disturbances across central Italy
• provisional governments were established
• Napoleon – concerned about the international situation and developments in Italy – made peace with Austria (Piedmont got Lombardy but Venetia remained under Austrian rule.
• Cavour to convince Emmanuel to fight alone, he refused, Cavour resigned
• provisional govs arranged for the election of assemblies – vote for union with Piedmont
• 1860 – Cavour returned to power
• Napoleon was now ready to accept Piedmontese expansion in central Italy
• 1860 March – plebiscites – favoured annexation to Piedmont
• Savoy and Nice – handed over to France
• Northern and central Italy (except Venetia) – united under Victor Emmanuel
• Cavour wanted to stop – Garibaldi had other ideas

Garibaldi

• initially supported Mazzini, then abandoned republican ideals, remained devoted to unity
• inspired devotion among his men
• practical: his achievements rested upon his actions rather than his thoughts
• 1860 – revolt broke out in Sicily (King Francis was very conservative)
• hoped to spark a nationalist uprising uniting Italy – asked Cavour's support – did not get it (Cavour thought it was not desirable, foreign governments might interfere it too much was done too quickly)
• Emmanuel supported Garibaldi
• 1860 May – sailed to Sicily in 2 old paddle steamers (did not have much chance to succeed)
• won the Sicilian peasants support by promising land reform and tax reduction
• won a surprise victory at Calatafimi
• became 'dictator'
• prepared to attack the mainland – feared that Cavour might prevent him using the island as a base for an attack on Naples so he didn't hand it over to Piedmont
• Naples – Francis accepted a constitution and brought in liberal ministers
• Cavour was concerned about Garibaldi getting too much credit for uniting Italy if he continued (credit should go to Piedmont)
• Cavour attempted to arrange a revolution in Naples in favour of Emmanuel but failed
• August 18-19 Garibaldi – dodged Piedmontese ships (trying to prevent him from crossing) and got his men to the mainland
• won the support of peasants
• Francis fled
• September 7 – Garibaldi took over
• wanted to take over Rome
• Neapolitan military resistance north of Naples hindered his plans and gave Cavour time to regain the upper hand
• Garibaldi's march on Rome could provoke war with Napoleon
• Cavour also feared that Garibaldi might take over Italy
• Emmanuel led the Piedmont army south
• Garibaldi had a choice of fighting or acknowledging Emmanuel
• October 26 – Garibaldi saluted for Emmanuel as 'the first king of Italy' and handed over his conquests
• refused titles and wealth
• retired to Caprera
• Plebiscites – organized in Naples, Umbria and the Papal Marches (voters had little alternative: unite or continue the present state of near anarchy) huge majority voted for unity
• after 1860 – Piedmontese systems were imposed upon the rest of the country
• 1st Italian government (elected in 1861) met in Turin (capital of Piedmont) adopted the far from democratic Piedmontese constitution
• 1861 March - unified Italy was proclaimed
• civil servants, politicians, soldiers dominated the new kingdom

The Risorgimento Completed

• unified Italy faced problems
• strong local loyalties remained
• rivalry between north and south
• for south unification was like colonization by Piedmont
• southern opinion turned against Emmanuel – law and order broke down
• troops were committed to peacekeeping
• more lived were lost in all the 'brigands' war' than were lost in all the battles for unification
• Pope's hostility to the new state was a problem
• Venetia and Rome were to be added to the kingdom – secret treaty with Prussia (1866) if Prussia went to war with Austria in 2 months she would follow her in declaring war on Austria, receiving Venetia
• war was a disaster for Italian forces, Prussia was victorious
• Franco-Prussian war (1870) – French forces were withdrawn from Rome
• 1870 October – plebiscite – Rome voted for union with Italy and became the capital

Conclusion

• Mazzini wanted Italy to 'make itself'
• without favorable international situation, unification would not have come about when it did
• Piedmontese expansionism rather than Italian nationalism was the real driving force behind unification
• the Italy created in 1861 was not the Italy nationalists like Mazzini wanted
• nationalism was a vital element (1859-60) National Society persuaded Italians they should support Piedmont
• Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi had very different opinions but their interaction was crucial

• Mazzini – provided the intellectual basis for nationalist movement and inspired some influential leaders (like Garibaldi).
• Cavour – more important, once seen as an Italian nationalist whose every diplomatic manoeuvre was designed to promote unification, others say his chief concern was to extend Piedmontese power and to use the appeal of a united Italy as a means to this end.
• Garibaldi – his contribution to unification was vital, his exploits made him a focal point for patriotic emotion, his conquest of the south in 1860 was a major element in the unification process. He could have been a dictator of southern Italy but believed in national unity to be more important than personal ambition.

• Victor Emmanuel – often seen as lucky – he was at the right place at the right time. He appointed the right people (Cavour) who carried out his policies.