Phase 3 also suggests an evaluation of the clients sport be undertaken. During earlier discussion the client referred to the term “mental toughness” on numerous occasions, almost suggesting it was a prerequisite for success in rugby. Jones (2002) provides an exploration into the term and proposes that it is one of the most important psychological attributes contributing to an athlete’s success (Eklund, Gould, and Jackson, 1993). While an absolute definition is hard to form, some prevailing ideals are expressed throughout the literature, including, an ability to deal with high pressure, stress and adversity (Goldberg, 1998); the ability to deal with failure (Dennis, 1981); self-determination (Gibson, 1998); self-control (Jones, 2002) and masculinity (Jones, 2002). From a psychological standpoint the above features can be considered key traits of an elite performer. Similar traits are highlighted in detailed accounts provided by ex-England rugby player Johnny Wilkinson (McRae, 2005 in Roberts and Treasure, 2012).
Assessment of elite athlete
Phase 4 of the framework suggests a needs assessment of the elite athlete take place, the following paragraphs explore the methods of testing which were selected. A range of assessment methods were used in order to effectively explore potential weaknesses of the athlete.
Performance Profiling was introduced as it provides a holistic view of performance which is not achieved in some of the other methods. To administer this test the athlete is required to identify attributes which they believe are most significant to their sport. The athlete is then required to rate themselves out of ten and identify an ideal score they could realistically attain when attempting to improve performance.
Butler (1996) uses a triadic model to identify significant features of a successful performance, the model suggests performance is based around three factors, physical preparation, technical skill and psychological readiness. The model highlights the importance of preparation in all areas and suggests performance is inferior when all needs are not satisfied (Butler, 1996). Performance Profiling is able to capture a mixture of physiological, mental, technical and team skills in a single assessment, something other assessments do not offer. Weston (2011) further promotes performance profiling, proposing that it works well because it can enhance an athlete’s awareness of the necessary factors which create a successful performance.
Results from the performance profile (appendix A) suggested that the client had particularly strong team based attributes but doubts their physical abilities and mental skills.
Interviews were selected for their ability to collect detailed qualitative data about a person’s thoughts and experiences (Rabionet, 2011). Boyce and Neale (2006) suggest interviews are particularly effective when discussing issues of considerable importance, this is because Interviewers can advantage of social cues such as tone and body language.
Results (appendix B) from the interview propose that the client is struggling to regain full fitness prior injury and this is causing them to doubt their physical and psychological abilities.
The test of performance strategies (TOPS) was the final method of assessment used on the athlete (Thomas et al. 1999). Before the questionnaire took place the client received a brief introduction and instructions on what the task would require. When collected, scores were compared with a sample from another study (Thomas et al, 1999). The TOPS questionnaire can be seen as advantageous as it allowed for further indication to the psychological factors which would be most useful targeting, as well as providing reference values which can act as a comparative tool (Lane et al. 2004).
Results (appendix C) indicated that the performer is struggling to relax and regularly facilitates negative thoughts.
The development of a mental skills training package
Continuing with the framework, phase 5 suggests a consultation with the client take place. During the consultation the practitioner is given an opportunity to discuss how they interpreted the needs assessment.
Negative thinking was perhaps the most apparent theme in the needs assessment, it scored highest on the TOPS and the client demonstrated low levels of confidence in their skills/ abilities during the performance profile. The short interview also revealed the client has developed severe worry during and post injury. Goldberg (1997) suggests performance “slumps” generally follow a predictable cycle, athletes perform badly and develop feelings of self-doubt and worry, further affecting future performance. Hatzigeorgiadis and Biddle (2008) found that negativism expressed through self-talk was also linked with more intense levels of anxiety.
Some perspectives in sport psychology associate anxiety with reduced task performance (LeUnes and Nation, 1996). Other views, such as those expressed in Drive Theory, suggest anxiety could be essential to sports performance (Kleine, 1990). Hannin (1978) developed the ZOF model which predicted athletes could benefit from anxiety, providing it did not surpass an optimal range. As the client projects emotions which are linked with high levels of anxiety, they could be facilitating a level, which is no longer beneficial to their performance (Hannin, 1978). Aiming to reduce anxiety could be beneficial to the client’s performance, although to further quantify anxiety is disrupting their performance, other needs assessments such as the STAI would be useful (Turner and Raglin, 1996).
A lack of emotional control is another coherent theme visible in the information collected during the needs assessment. When looking at the TOPS it was considered poor, when compared with a sample of results from another study (Thomas et al, 1999). Strong statements projected in the interview also suggested the client’s ability to control their emotions was poor, during the interview the athlete expressed severe worry regarding their place in the team and their place in the sport all together.
Identifying areas of weakness allows the skill selection to be a more individualistic process to the client. After a discussion with the client, a decision was made to target negative thinking, anxiety and emotional control.
Skill selection
Imagery
Vealey (1998) defines Imagery as a mental recreation of a skill. Imagery is one of the most frequently used MST techniques, and has research which backs its ability to improve sports performance (Morris et al. 2005). Applied Imagery Theory (Martin, Moritz and Hall, 1999) proposes imagery is capable of developing various functions, one of the functions is the ability to enhance motivation, which could be particularly important when attempting to reduce the client’s negative thoughts. In addition to this, Martin, Moritz and Hall (1999) suggest imagery can enhance an individual’s ability to regulate anxiety and arousal, which could be useful when targeting any anxiety related issues the client might possess. Furthermore, Martin, Moritz and Hall (1999) suggest imagery can be used to improve specific task confidence, which could be used to target the individual’s doubts surrounding their kicking ability.
Hale (1980) proposes, a successful imagery implementation plan is dependent on four elements, relaxation, realism, regularity, and reinforcement, incorporating these factors into the programme could make it more effective. Internal imagery is a technique which can be used to emphasise the sensations of movement, by applying this principle the client could develop a technique which is more realistic to the actual performance (Smyth and Waller, 1998). Providing a practice which is specific to an actual event is important, as when the client attempts to use the technique during competition the processes they face will be relatable to the ones they have practiced (Martin, Moritz and Hall, 1999). Orick and Partington (1980) observe elite performers are more likely to practice imagery from an internal perspective.
Positive self-talk
Van Raalte et al. (2000) propose that athletes use self-talk for positive affirmation and instruction to enhance their performance. Using self-talk in these contexts has shown to improve the cognitive processes associated with task completion, as well as increasing the motivation needed to fulfil the task (Gammage, Hardy and Hall, 2001). Theodorakis et al. (2000) considered the efficacy of self-talk on sports performance and found specific demands such as strength and stamina were improved during instructional and motivational self-talk. During the interview it was clear some of the athletes doubts stemmed from reduced physiological abilities post injury, developing these attributes could improve the psychological state of the performer.
Multi-dimensional model of self-talk
Hardy, Oliver and Tod (2009)
Hardy, Oliver and Tod (2009) suggest self-talk is multi-dimensional in its nature and can be used to target a range of problems, because of this the mechanisms which allow self-talk to work are vast. Within the above model two main potential antecedents are identified, personal and situational factors, these are used to categorise negative performance effectors. Beyond this, mechanism are identified which aim to explain why self-talk can have positive impacts on task performance. As issue’s concerning self-confidence, anxiety and emotional control were identified within the needs assessment, a range of mechanisms will be triggered if self-talk is administered correctly. Ferneyhough and Fradley (2005) support the theoretical proposition of Vygotsky’s (1963), which proposes many of the benefits observed from self-talk, are relatable to the idea that self-talk can work as a regulatory function. If the client is able to regulate effectors such as negative thinking and anxiety more effectively it is possible they could improve their performance (Nleuwenhuys and Oudejans, 2011).
Cognitive reconstruction is the label often given to the process of implementing self-talk (Greenspan and Feltz, 1989). This process requires the performer/ practitioner to identify potential effectors, create alternate processes and practice their adoption. Providing the clients performance effectors have been adequately identified in the needs assessment, Greenspan and Feltz (1989) propose cognitive restructuring is capable of greater effect size than goal setting, mental rehearsal and relaxation. Rogerson and Hrycaiko (2002) propose the use of worksheets to provide clarity and structure to the implementation of self-talk, something similar could improve the immediate MST programme.
Adherence
When designing a MST programme it is important to consider the athlete’s adherence, as ultimately this will affect how strictly they follow the MST programme.
Coolican and Hassidy (2007) propose regular interactions with the client to promote programme adherence. Providing the client with consistent feedback will help deal with problems which can arise in the midst of the programme. Regular meetings provide the client with an extended education process, which can be extremely beneficial to the programmes implementation. Continuously rationalising and explaining the programme has been show to increase an individual’s belief in the programme, which can further promote its success (Hemmings and Holder, 2013).
As the client scored highly in goal-setting during the TOPS, it seemed appropriate to utilise this feature to benefit the programme. Outcome, Process and Performance goals, are types of goals which can be used in the developmental stages of developing a skill (Locke and Latham, 2006). In terms of improving adherence specifically the various types of goals could be used to monitor factors such as attendance and consistency. Locke and Latham (2002) suggests a combination of long term and short term goals, can aid in initial improvements as well as continued development.
Personal reflection
Working with elite athletes is arguably one of the most interesting yet challenging areas of sport science, as the external demands of athletes grow, a successful support team becomes increasingly important. Providing “effective consultancy” was perhaps the greatest challenge to me. Birrer et al. (2012) suggest effective consultancy in something which is typically developed through trial and error. If this is a view of qualified psychologist, perhaps further thought should be projected towards the process of becoming a qualified practitioner. Until practitioners have had ample time to develop their consultancy skills, it is likely that they will have already provide sub-standard services in actual practice. I feel the most apparent flaw with my consultancy, was providing a rationale to the client, as this usually resulted in wider debate. In professional practice this could prove time consuming and confusing.
Using Weinberg and Williams’ (2001) framework to direct practice proved advantageous for a key reason, as an inexperienced and unqualified practitioner, the framework provided an element of structure and direction. This could be time and effort saving for professional practitioners, as to some extent the practitioner will be able to reuse various elements, when working to resolve problems they have previously experienced. Although reproduction could reduce the individuality of programmes, which was previously recognised as advantageous (Bull, 1991).
In order to develop a broader view of framework in practice, other frameworks were revised. Singer (1988) proposes a five step MST programme which focuses on the development of self-paced skills. Whilst this framework appears more specialist in the way which is targets a specific type of skill development, it does not include a needs assessment phase. The elimination of a needs assessment phase eliminates “client specific weakness identification”, which seemed useful in the development of the immediate programme.
In a brief consideration of MST programmes from a practitioner’s perspective, it was apparent the athlete’s knowledge of rugby was much greater than my own, this made it difficult to effectively relate to their sport/ lifestyle. Furthermore, my lack of knowledge when discussing the selected sport is likely to have been an element of concern to the athlete. When giving advice with regards to a specific sport, its value is likely to be reduced if the practitioner has insufficient background knowledge.
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Appendix A: Performance profile
Appendix B: Test of performance strategies
TOPS: Results displayed as a bar chart
Necessary measures:
When considering the best method of feeding data back to the athlete, graphs such as the above can provide a more vivid account of a data set. A collection of these graphs can also provide the athlete with an easy way of viewing their progress. Thomas et al. (1999) found that some measures taken in practice contexts were not able to produce results, which appropriate assumptions could be developed from for competition. The immediate data was collected 10 minutes after a training game, establishing a set time to administer assessments can provide a collection of results which provide the most relevant measures.
Appendix C: Key findings from the interview with client
* The Client is playing at a standard lower than they played prior to injury and this is seems to be bothering them.
* After some poor performances the client has stated to doubt their value to the team and has considered retiring from competitive rugby.
* The client is still not confident that their body will be able to withstand regular game time.
* Prior to tearing their ACL the client kicked nationally and considered it their best attribute, after limited practice, the client feels their ability has drastically declined.
* The client reports feeling nervous before a game. Prior to injury at county level the client considered themselves one of the best performers, the client is struggling to adjust to playing a less active role in the game.
* The client reports a reduction in physiological abilities.
* Despite a drop in individual performance, the client remains that they still work well within the team and suggests performing well for them is largest pressure that they feel.
* The client states that they have been training aggressively in an attempt to return to the peak of their abilities. This could be causing “burn out”, contributing to some of the psychological problems that they are faced with.
Appendix D: Techniques which could prove useful
Motivationally-challenging situation:
______________________________________________________________________________
Buffer image:
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PETTLEP checklist
Physical:
______________________________________________________________________________
Environment:
______________________________________________________________________________
Task:
______________________________________________________________________________
Timing:
______________________________________________________________________________
Learning:
______________________________________________________________________________
Emotion:
______________________________________________________________________________
Perspective:
___________________________________________________________________________
When considering the implementation of imagery (and other types of MST), methods have been developed which can aid in their administration. As the athlete confesses that they have never used MST with conviction before, guidelines such as the above could aid in successful implementation. PETTLEP the procedure displayed above can be used to create a visual image with very specific details (Holmes and Collins, 2003).
Hardy, Roberts and Hardy (2009) propose that many athlete will facilitate negative effectors because they are unaware that they exist. By incorporating a logbook, it is suggested that athletes will become more aware of their behaviour. Enhanced levels of awareness can assist in behavioural development as the athlete can start to avoid certain behaviours, in the context of self-talk for example, the athlete could choose to stop or supress identified words or phrases (Meyers and Schleser, 1980; Gardner and Moore, 2004).
Appendix D: Informed Consent
Participant Information sheet
What does the following research aim to achieve?
This research seeks to develop a MST programme based on information collected during the needs assessment. As I am not a qualified practitioner the programme will not actually be undertaken however some information will be given back to the client.
What is your role as a participant?
As a participant you are asked to meet for two consultations and be subjected to a performance profile, test of performance strategies and a short interview, all of which are described in detail before they occur.
Advantages of taking part
* Increase awareness of performance effectors
* Gain an insight into MST
Possible drawbacks of taking part
* Time consuming
* Potentially tedious
What will the data be used for?
The data will be used to develop a MST programme which holds a good degree of specificity.
How will the data be stored?
In secure digital/ physical files on either university property or on the researcher’s laptop.
Who is the researcher?
A 3rd year Durham university undergraduate student completing a Case study.
How can they be contacted:
[email protected]
07468452517
How can you withdraw from the process?
The right to withdraw from the research will be made explicitly clear throughout the process, specifically at the start of each needs assessment.
Is all of the information which is kept confidential?
All information collected during this case study is anonymised
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
Project Title: Developing a mental skills training programme for an elite level athlete
Principal Investigator (Student name(s)): Joshua Wilson
Participant Number/Pseudonym: Athlete 1
Please tick where applicable:
• I have read and understood the Participant Information Sheet. ( )
• I have had an opportunity to ask questions and discuss this study and have received satisfactory answers. ( )
• I understand that I am free to withdraw from the study at any time, without having to give a reason for withdrawing, and without prejudice. ( )
• I agree to take part in this study. ( )
Signature of participant.............................................................................
Date.....………………..
(NAME IN BLOCK LETTERS)....................................................………..
Signature of student researcher(s)...................................................Date.....………
(NAME(S) IN BLOCK LETTERS)....................................................………
by
wilsonjosh94hotmailcouk (student)
