Does the paranormal exist because we believe or do we believe because it exists?
Does the paranormal exist because we believe or do we believe because it exists?
Parapsychology, the study of the paranormal, is a relatively new and indefinite field of psychology; with the term psi - anomalous (unexplained) phenomena - only being introduced by Thouless in 1942. It was later defined by Krippner in 1977 as 'interactions between organisms and their environment (including other organisms) which are not mediated by recognized sensorimotor functions.' With investigations into the presence of the paranormal within our society still developing to warrant scientific merit, the current body of experimental evidence is lacking and deemed by many as inconclusive. Regardless of the uncertainty of research, surveys have revealed that the public's belief and curiosity in the paranormal is unprecedented (Alcock,J.E., 1990).
Therefore to address the title, I will firstly split it into two questions: Do we believe in the paranormal because it exists? - This will be discussed with reference to the history of the paranormal, the development of the arguments and the dominating research. Or does the paranormal exist because we believe? - This will be discussed with reference to the popularity that the concept of paranormal has garnered in modern culture, the human belief system and the influence it has had on our perceptions and previous experiments.
My view is that the field of parapsychology is still in its earliest stages and obviously with the abstract nature of the expression of the paranormal it has been very difficult to scrutinize in a laboratory. Hence I will review the most successful study (Ganzfeld, 1970) that has indicated the presence of psi phenomenon and has not received complete dismissal from the critics. Also in contrast highlight the uncertainty of the public, the role of the media, the educational system and our cultures philosophies.
My main complaint is that parapsychology has been stigmatized by researchers in harder, more definite sciences as being relatively 'soft,' which has led to it being held in low regard; 'affecting credibility, funding, resources, and ultimately, manpower' (Cloman,A.M., 1995, p19). This has led to an uphill battle for researchers to comply with the stringent experimental design, only for it then to be tore apart and dismissed. Therefore all areas will be reviewed in an unbiased fashion, in an attempt to learn from past mistakes (instead of repeating them) and end this vicious circle and look to the future
Studies investigating the existence of the paranormal have only appeared in scientific journals since the sixties; and have only attempted to be identified under laboratory circumstance in the past fifty years. Prior to this many individuals had profited on claiming to possess 'psi abilities' (many still do); these intelligent individuals had recognized the public's interest. Most of these cases were probable frauds as so far those individuals have failed to satisfactorily duplicate their powers within a carefully controlled environment and between several independent laboratories, for e.g:
'Tina Resch, the 14 year old poltergeist in Columbus, Ohio (Frazier, pg 145); the clairvoyant named Croiset who tried to work with Dutch police solving murders (Frazier, page 122) as well as other psychic "remote viewers" (Sceptical Inquirer Nov./Dec. 1995); Uri Gellar's spoon bending ability (discredited by James Randi).
Modern psychical research is said to have begun with J.B. Rhine's research into card-guessing in 1934; Rhine's standardized methods and apparent success somewhat legitimized the field and attracted outside scientists. The intention was that through rigorous application of the methodology of science, psi would soon be put ...
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'Tina Resch, the 14 year old poltergeist in Columbus, Ohio (Frazier, pg 145); the clairvoyant named Croiset who tried to work with Dutch police solving murders (Frazier, page 122) as well as other psychic "remote viewers" (Sceptical Inquirer Nov./Dec. 1995); Uri Gellar's spoon bending ability (discredited by James Randi).
Modern psychical research is said to have begun with J.B. Rhine's research into card-guessing in 1934; Rhine's standardized methods and apparent success somewhat legitimized the field and attracted outside scientists. The intention was that through rigorous application of the methodology of science, psi would soon be put on a solid empirical footing rather than simply relying on the ability of self-proclaimed psychics to demonstrate their skills.(Irwin,H.J., 2004)
Right from the start of investigations into the psi effect, there have been sceptics, some more extreme than others. Parapsychology was immediately viewed from its inception as a contradiction to science - a direct challenge to centuries of continual advance in which theory had been built upon theory, each one more testable, statistically replicable, and more carefully, measured each time. Parapsychology can't be considered a fully-developed science as long as it lacks some agreed upon theories which would provide acceptable explanations for its data. 'The structure created by a theory is what is needed to coordinate the research efforts of the psi community.' (Teresi.,S. 2000). There have been constructive critics who have helped develop the necessary methodological rigour and zealous ones that have made unwarranted accusations and preferred any alternative to the possibility of the paranormal. With experimenters claiming results that cannot be explained by chance and critics arguing that the best explanations are methodological flaws, statistical errors, or outright fraud.
Methodological flaws have also been accounted for the significant results of the earlier Ganzfeld studies (www.skeptic.com/ganzfled). By 1986, however, a debate between C.Honorton (a supporter of psi) and R.Hyman (a critic of psi), in the Journal of Parapsychology, culminated in the two collaborating on a paper that outlined more stringent standards for the future Ganzfeld studies. This historical paper lead to an analysis of ten studies carried out by Bem and Honorton (1994) that had conformed to the standards reported. Their Ganzfeld studies had an overall hit rate of 35%, significantly greater than 25% chance rate (Frazier,K., 1998).
The Ganzfeld studies are one of a few experimental techniques that have garnered positive reviews from sceptics, and therefore I will use the criticisms assigned to the experimental design as a review of all experiments into the paranormal. One of the earliest and best known possibilities of influencing the experiment is what was identified by Gertrude Schmeilder (1958) as the sheep-goat effect. This referred to whether the participants believe in the paranormal - sheep - or did not - goat. Schmeilder found that sheep consistently scored higher than goats, who often 'psi-missed.' A review of sheep-goat experiments many years later indicated that the effect is widespread across many experiments (Palmer,1971) suggesting that belief or motivation might be important in psi ability. To further emphasize this point Schmeilder also identified that disbelievers scored significantly below chance, and when compared, the difference between the two was so significant that it is now feared that the arguments between parapsychologists and sceptics has now spilled over into the experiments.
Many psychology experimenters have been accused of inflicting demand characteristics on their participants, and paranormal experiments are no different. Schmeilder (1958) proposed that the belief orientation of the experimenter or research team conducting the experiment could have a 'psi-inhibitory' or 'psi-conductive' effect on the participant. I.e. if the participant felt that the people coordinating the results were cynical of their answers or their performance, they gained a lesser score; probably from holding back as not to embarrass them or avoiding being made to feel uncomfortable through questioning (Alcock, J.E, 1990). Schmeilder has shown participants to gain more significant scores if the experimenter is for example more enthusiastic about the answers the participant is making, this is not to say that the experimenter inflicts psi ability on them, but that they do tend to express themselves more. There are many other experimental factors that may have constituted fraud, however I want to concentrate on this main influencing factor of 'belief' compromising the existing validity of evidence. The vicious circle of belief in the existence of a phenomenon may result in perfectly explainable instances being attributed to it; has belief in wanting to understand a few bizarre occasions lead to the creation of an imaginary other world?
Joseph Alcock (1990) proposed that 'our brain and nervous system constitute a belief-machine (p56);' that selects information from the environment and combines it with memories already held. The formation of beliefs, Alcock theorised, is through a seven component 'belief machine' that 'chugs away, strengthening old beliefs, spewing out new ones, and rarely discarding any (p56).' Regardless of their basis, either abstract or concrete, they are all product of the same process however they do involve greater or lesser involvement from 'critical thinking' and 'emotional response units'. They are generated without any automated regard for the truth, and therefore are often interfered with by our imagination. Alcock deemed concern for the truth as a 'higher order acquired cognitive orientation,' (p60) that reflects an 'underlying philosophy which presupposes an objective reality that is not always perceived by our senses.'
Although some beliefs may be built on a lack of evidence they all provide a purpose of understanding and control; for example those individuals searching for a meaning for life will gain comfort from their beliefs in an after life and a higher power. We allow this 'illusion of control' (Langer 1975), over events that are anomalous or in reality not controllable by ourselves, for security. 'Belief' as a result is a very powerful thing, and perceptions of truth and reality are routinely interfered with by our imagination, to accommodate are current belief system: 'The degree of intellectual and emotional commitment to such beliefs is overwhelming, and it is a rare individual who will examine the merits of that commitment (Alcock,J.E.,1990).' Furthermore surveys by Alcock 1981; Evans, 1973 and McConnell 1977 have found that personal experience to be the major reason given by respondents for their belief in paranormal phenomenon, this Alcock (1990) theorised as 'probably based on perception error and self-delusion.'
The popularity of the belief in the paranormal has been widely attributed by anthropologists and sceptics to be due to four 'principle factors'(Irwin,H.J. 2004, p228): Those being 'the uncertainty of the public' - 'human beings are likely to seek reassurance in paranormal beliefs whenever they face situations where the outcome is uncertain or beyond their control'(p228): 'The unreliability of the media' - 'most adult Americans depend primarily upon the media for their knowledge and understanding of the world,' however the media tend to hype the situation as they are fully aware of the public interest and the attention it will cause (p230): 'The inadequacy of the educational system' - scientists have blamed schools for failing to teach the basic principles of the scientific method, 'the skills of the evidential reasoning and logical analysis that re at the heart of the scientific approach are rarely identified and examined'(p231). 'The inaccuracy of our worldview' - hypotheses such as polygraphs can detect lies, human beings have souls, and there is a life after death are entrenched in our culture and society as 'common sense'(p232). Many sceptics have wanted to tackle this 'irrationalism,' by addressing the education system and the media. My opinion is that this is 'irrational' of them, the curiosity of society is not suddenly going to stop.
The dilemma is the one facing the researchers; the lack of an existing theory or at least critique into what exactly constitutes the paranormal has lead to uncertainty of the significance of the experiments into psi expression. There is a considerable spectrum of opinion with what can be included as paranormal phenomenon. Palmer (1985) argues that psi phenomena are defined in a negative manner and 'that until parapsychologists have produced a positive theory of psi that describes the properties that must be present in order to claim psi has occurred, all they can claim to have demonstrated is the occurrence of a number of anomalies that themselves constitute the subject matter of psi.' Having just been introduced to this area of psychology myself it is difficult, as I had expected, to judge the degree to which either part of the title is true. However referring to researchers who have made a valid point during my research, I can mould an objective future for the investigation into the truth of the paranormal, whether it is the 'only explanation for half a century's worth of experimentally observed significant psi ability' or the 'manifestation of irrational people uneducated in science' (Frazier, K. 1998)
The researchers must use the 'Mind-body' dualism, and lessen the importance placed on stringent experimental procedures:
'The idea that 'the mental process cannot be reduced to physical processes and that the mind, or part of it, is non-physical by nature.' (Wolfman 1977)
The conflict between many scientists and the parapsychologists will continue if scientists look to the paranormal as 'nonsense' or as a threat, they must work together to find the definite answer:
Paranormal is "in principle physically impossible and outside the range of human capabilities as presently conceived by conventional scientists." (Tobacyk, 1995)
The public (no matter what the media may speculate) and researchers should not expect a revolutionary finding, it may take some time:
'No single person has been able to demonstrate unique proficiency in psi, and such a person is generally no longer expected to exist' (Teresi.,S. 2000)
Researchers must be encouraged to investigate:
'The James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) has offered one million dollar prize for anyone to submit proof that their claims of having repeatable paranormal ability are true' (Frazier,K. 1998 p258).
Adapting a critical thinking, non-biased approach:
Society of Psychical Research (1882) founded, established objectives 'to examine without prejudice or prepossession and in a scientific spirit those faculties of man, real or supposed, which appear to be inexplicable on any generally recognized hypothesis' (Frazier, K. 1998 p 256).
And to remember:
'An extraordinary degree of evidence is often demanded in support of extraordinary claims.' (Irwin, H.J., 2004).
As they say there's no smoke without fire....................
References
Alcock, A.E. (1990). Science and Supernatural: A Critical Appraisal of Parapsychology. Buffalo, N.Y: Prometheus Books.
Broughton, R. (1991). Parapsychology: The controversial science. USA: Ballantine Books.
Colemore, M, A. (1995). Controversies in Psychology. New York: Longman Publishing.
Eysenck, H.J & Sargent, C. (1997). Explaining the Unexplained: mysteries of the paranormal. London: Prion Books Limited.
Frazier, K. (1986). Science Confronts the Paranormal. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
Frazier, K. (1998). Encounters with the Paranormal. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
Hansel, C. E. M. (1980). ESP and Parapsychology: A Critical Reevaluation. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
Honorton, Charles, and Daryl J. Bem. "Does Psi Exist? Replicable Evidence for an Anomalous Process of Information Transfer." Psychological Bulletin, 1994, Vol. 115 No. 1, Pages 4-18. Available on the web.
Irwin, H.J. (2004). An Introduction to Parapsychology (Fourth Edition). North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc.
