TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT
“Without minimising the contribution of the sciences, the great improvement of performance in modern competitive sport is due to the exceptional increase in the training
level of athletes whose intrinsic motivation was regularly reinforced by extrinsic motivation which was always renewed to the point of being dangerous.”
(Chauveau, 1999: International Forum on Elite Sport)
THEORIES
The role of training and development in sport is the KEY ingredient to success – both at the individual and organisational level. In week 3 we looked at various theories of training and we discussed them from an organisational and individual perspective. In this lecture we will look at them from a sporting perspective.
We looked at cognitive and non-cognitive theories of training. Within the cognitive theories there were four:
- Expectancy theory
- Goal setting theory
- Social learning theory
- Equity theory
Expectancy Theory
Within this theory motivation is viewed as a conscious choice.
• People put their efforts into actions they can perform to achieve desired outcomes.
• The three key elements:
– Expectancy: Expect effort to result in success
– Instrumentality: Performance results in reward
– Valence: Value individual puts on outcome
From a sporting perspective expectancy theory is shared between various groups:
- The expectations the player has on himself/herself
- The expectations the coaching staff have on the individual
- The expectations the coaching staff have on the team
- The expectations the organisation has on the individual
- The expectations the organisation has on the team
- The expectations the organisation has on the coaching staff
- The expectations the supporters have on the individual
- The expectations the supporters have on the team
- The expectations the supporters have on the coaching staff
- The expectations the supporters have on the organisation
Goal Setting Theory
• Specific, difficult and understood goals generally lead to higher performance.
• Keys to success are the level of difficulty and the clearness of goals.
From a sports perspective – goals are the key to successful performance. I.e. in team sports players make goals as a group – which range from simple tasks to the most difficult. It could be goals that are on a week-to-week basis, or goals that are set for the whole season.
Social Learning Theory
• Major prediction of the theory is that expectations determine:
– Whether behaviour will be performed
– How much effort will be expended
– How long you will perform the behaviour
In sport behaviour is critical – behaviours are determined on a week-to-week basis.
Equity Theory
Major assumptions:
• If you are treated fairly, you will keep working well.
• If you think you are being treated unfairly, you will change your behaviour in order to be treated fairly.
Non-Cognitive Theories
Behaviour Modification
Principles for controlling employee behaviour:
• Positive Reinforcement
• Negative Reinforcement
• Extinction – decrease occurrences by eliminating reinforcement that causes the behaviour.
• Punishment – Introduce an adverse consequence immediately after behaviour
EXAMPLE
Unable to tackle well
1. You are advised that your technique is incorrect
2. You are shown what the correct technique is
3. If you are unable to improve you are sent to see the head coach and further training is discussed
4. If this is still occurring - you are dropped from the team
Question: Is this positive or negative reinforcement, and why?
KSAs
From a Sports perspective:
• Attitudes are critical: individual nature related to ongoing performance
• Skills: abilities and capacities in performing the required tasks
• Knowledge: about the sport, the rules/laws of the game
• For most industries HRD programs mostly focus on changing skills and knowledge, while in sport all three are critical.
TRAINING IN SPORT
There are two types of training in sport:
1. Training to perform
2. Training for a future outside sport
It is only in recent years that the second type of training has come into focus – particularly in Australia
AUSTRALIAN FOOTBALL LEAGUE TRAINING
'The Next Goal'
The AFL Players' Association, in association with AFL Sports Ready Ltd, has established "The Next Goal" Career Transition Program that aims to enhance the post football employment prospects of career oriented mature aged AFL Players. The primary objective of the Program is to increase the chances of a player making a successful career transition beyond their football career.
"The Next Goal" Career Transition Program has been implemented for current members of the AFLPA who will be aligned with employers willing to provide work experience and training, sponsored by the Program, in a field or discipline preferred by the player.
Objectives
There is sufficient anecdotal evidence to suggest that many AFL Players have found it difficult to make a successful career transition into their post football working life after retiring from the game. In recent times, there has been a much greater emphasis on providing opportunities and support for members of the AFLPA in the later stages of their football careers to establish a meaningful and rewarding vocation after football.
To further assist in this area, AFL Sports Ready Ltd and the AFL Player's Association, have established "The Next Goal" Career Transition Program to improve the post football employment prospects of suitably qualified and/or career oriented mature aged AFL Players. The primary objective of the Program is to enhance the player's career development and future employment prospects through the provision of work experience and training.
Strategy
To achieve this objective "The Next Goal" Program will align AFL Players with employers who are willing to provide work experience and training, sponsored by the Program, in a field or discipline that matches the qualifications and/or requirements of the player.
The number and frequency of hours worked per week and the total period of the work experience placement will be structured to accommodate the football obligations of the player. It is expected that the player should complete the equivalent of between six (6) and eight (8) weeks full time in the workplace. A player currently on an AFL Club list will be available up to a maximum of fifteen (15) hours per week for their work experience placement.
THE AUSTRALIAN RUGBY UNION
The Career Training Scheme, a joint initiative between the Rugby Union Players Association and Australian Rugby has adopted the following mission statement:
To provide nationally consistent services which will assist Rugby Union players to undertake education, vocation and personal development opportunities whilst pursuing and achieving excellence in professional Rugby Union.
The Career Training Scheme committee has identified and will implement six key strategies to ensure that State Union and Academy players are provided with comprehensive support networks throughout their careers.
"Rugby is not just a sport. It's much more than that. It's really a lifestyle, it's a fraternity, it's a culture, it's a family in its own sense… rugby becomes very much an ingrained part of your life. It's what you do, it's what you know, and it’s the people."
John Eales, Former Wallaby Captain
Ambassador - Australian Rugby Union
The Australian, 2nd Aug 2001
The Career Training Scheme aims to capitalise on the culture of Australian Rugby to ensure that all players can fully exploit the career and education opportunities available to them throughout the length of their rugby careers. The Career Training Scheme is a proactive, player focused program structured to self empower players to maximise their potential on and off the field.
The Career Training Scheme is the most comprehensive support program for professional rugby players in the world featuring:
- Unique cradle to grave pathway
- Independent Career & Education advisers supporting players throughout all transitions during and after their rugby career
- Development of the Classic Wallabies as the worlds first professional rugby players alumni to ensure the culture and values of Rugby Union are enhanced
- Key stakeholders 'walking the walk' as well as 'talking the talk' in their total commitment to the philosophies and implementation of the program - ARU, State Union & Academy Coaches, CEO's, Team Management, players and player agents.
- Stakeholder accountability at all levels in all strategies to ensure benchmark minimum standards for all players
- Strategic alliances with industry leaders in career, education & financial management, welfare and counselling.
- Adopting a 'duty of care' for Rugby Unions number one asset, the players, in all areas of welfare & counselling
- Standardised learning outcomes for all core welfare and professional development courses
- Programs designed to enhance the performance of the players on and off the field
NATIONAL RUGBY LEAGUE
This is the second year of the full implementation of both the Minimum Standards and the Player Induction Program.
The Program uses a decentralised model where clubs are encouraged to utilise a number of local providers provided they are accredited through the NRL.
Clubs are also responsible for the funding of courses with the exception of the centrally provided module ‘The Player and the NRL’.
A number of clubs have expressed concern about the overall funding of the program and the equity of outcomes for all players in the NRL.
A review was conducted in September 2002 in order to understand what has worked for individual clubs as well as address areas of concern where practical and achievable measures can be introduced.
Overview of modules:
The four modules that comprise the Minimum Standards are:
Career Planning and Education Assessment: This module is central to players deriving long-term benefit from the program. It focuses on players receiving individual career guidance to allow them to develop a career plan including educational pathways to achieving their post-career ambition.
However there is no framework (as the AFL and ARU have) that clubs and players abide by. It is up to individual and the club to determine what courses the player would like to do and more importantly, whether the player is interested in further education at all. In this module there are no minimum standards.
Drugs in Sport: This is a workplace related issue and relates directly to the players’ contract. The module meets ASDA requirements and also addresses the area of dietary supplements. ‘Effective alcohol management techniques’ is an additional outcome.
Media Skills and Public Presentation: This module addresses the professional requirements of players in dealing with both electronic and print media. It also includes public presentation skills relating to speech making and other community-related projects.
Professional Sport and Gambling: This relates to the pitfalls of gambling in general life and the relationship between sport and gambling. It also covers the contractual requirement of players and the code in relation to avenues available to bet on the game. It also refers to the NRL Counselling Service.
Induction Program:
In addition to the above minimum standards players on their initial contract are required to complete the following modules:
The Player and the NRL: This provides players with an orientation on the NRL contract including its related codes. It also provides information on the education and welfare program. The issue of the player – manager relationship is also discussed.
The Player and His Club: This provides a checklist to ensure players receive an appropriate induction to the club and its policies and procedures. It also covers the provision of relevant documentation including the ASDA Drugs in Sport Handbook.
The Player and the Law: This module provides information on a number of laws and the consequences of infringement of same. This ranges from intoxication to sexual harassment.
Introduction to Financial Planning: This focuses on basic budgeting skills, simple investments, loans and mortgages and an understanding of basic tax requirements.
Time Management for Athletes: This helps players identify time management issues for the professional athlete and the development of skills and strategies to address these issues.
Diet and Nutrition for the Professional Athlete: Players are provided with professional advice and education on dietary needs for training and recovery requirements. This can include basic meal preparation skills. There is also reinforcement on the understanding of the use of dietary supplements.
Introduction to Computers: This module aims to ensure all players have basic computer literacy covering word processing, spreadsheets, Internet and email.
AUSTRALIAN CRICKET
The offering of a Career and Welfare Program is a joint initiative between the ACA and the Australian Cricket Board (ACB). It is offered to all current players and those that are recently retired. The program focuses on providing services in the key areas of:
- Career and education
- Financial development
- Personal development
- Personal and family support
The program is tailored to the different phases of a cricketer’s career to ensure that it is valued and useful. The different phases of a cricketer’s career have been identified as follows:
1. Beginning of career
2. Mid career
3. Pre retirement
4. Post career
The ACA and ACB have appointed two service providers to implement this program. CD Sports, a national HR company, are responsible for the career and education, personal development and personal and family support areas of the program.
They meet with all current players both individually and in groups at least four times per year. The individual needs of players are addressed so that all participants in the program gain maximum value.
The financial development area of the program is provided by Andersen (formerly Arthur Andersen). Their role is to educate the players in the area of financial management through individual and group consultation.
Whilst the program is primarily designed for current players, there are a handful of past players who have also benefited from these services
The Bulletin, 24 October 1989.
D Horne, The Next Australia, Sydney 1970, p, 156.
P Mosely & B Murray, "Soccer", in W Vamplew & B Stodart, Sport in Australia, Melbourne 1994, p.228.
E Grayson, Sport and the Law, Butterworths, London 1988, p.xlix.
B Dabscheck, "Unions in Professional Team Sports", Journal of Industrial Relations, Volume 38, (4) December 1996, p.627.
