Socialization
According to Schein (1968), organizational socialization is a process of learning the ropes that newcomers are active participants, who try to make sense of their environment, seek information, develop social support, and master skills through their own efforts. Hall (1987) mentions that, “career is viewed as a long term "bundle" of socialization experiences, as the person moves in, through, and out of various work-related roles over the span of his/her work life.” The six areas of socialization are performance proficiency, building successful relationship with members and co-workers, politics to gain information and power, organization language; slangs and jargons, leaning organizational goals and values, understanding organization’s traditions, customs, myths and background (Greenhaus et. al, 2000). A study conducted by Schein (1988, 2004) examined that the newcomer has to undergo various kind of socialization as he goes through his career in the organization. An individual learns different norms and applies to the occupational community as what information is appropriate to withhold, what is appropriate to say truthfully. In this process of socialization, an individual learns to massage the data, sanitize information, put appropriate words to be said publicly and edit embarrassing material, making a sales pitch or issuing propaganda. The newcomer feels the pressure of multiple socialization issues as he moves to the different stages and occupational communities. As one climbs the ladder it appears inevitable to become moral relativists. Morrison (1993) demonstrated in her research that, “organizational newcomers can facilitate the socialization process during their first 6 months of employment which was related to how well they mastered their job, defined their role, learned about their organization's culture, and became socially integrated.”
Work values are an important aspect of socialization. It is the way people feel about their work and behave on their jobs (England, 1967). As a newcomer, one would look for an opportunity to advance, doing something important, working on responsible task, opportunity to use aptitude and education and use creativity at work place and while performing tasks. Thus, work values affects work related emotions, cognition or behaviors to the entrants which can be manipulated via socialization (Watson & Barone, 1976). Newcomers who are not successful to adapt to the organization and its related work values are unlikely to survive in the organization (Schein, 1978). Allen and Meyer (1986) argue that newcomer’s organizational socialization experience can also detract from individual innovation. This can happen if newcomer accepts all the values of the organization to achieve a level of conformity and sterility. This can also affect individual’s capability of making the needed change in the organization. An individual as a newcomer should accept core goals and values of the organization that are pivotal (Greenhaus et. al, 2000). According to Ashforth & Saks (1996), successful socialization tactics among newcomers relates positively related to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational identification. Role innovation, role ambiguity, role conflict, stress symptoms, and intentions to quit are also related to job satisfaction and turnover intentions. A meta-analysis conducted by Bauner et al. (2007) reveal that newcomer’s adjustment (role clarity, self-efficacy, and social acceptance) mediated the effects of organizational socialization tactics and information seeking on socialization outcomes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance, intentions to remain, and turnover).
Socialization outcomes such as organizational commitment, turnover intention, and job satisfaction were also moderated by Leader-Member Exchange and Team-Member exchange. Favorable role development relationships with supervisors or work groups ameliorated the negative effects of unmet expectations of the newcomer (Major, Kozlowski, Chao, Georgia & Gardner, 1995). Moreover, socialization tactics strongly influences newcomer’s role clarity, workgroup integration, and task mastery. To add to this, successful adjustment of these newcomers to the role and organization has implications for performance, retention, and turnover of valuable knowledge workers. Also, organizational socialization tactics actively embed new employees (Allen, 2006).Results also indicated that on the job embeddedness also relates negatively to turnover and mediates socialization tactics and turnover.
A study conducted by Chatman (1991) revels that there is a correlation between values, socialization and organization fit. Newcomers’ values when match to the organization adjust more quickly as compared to those who experience most vigorous socialization to fit in the organization’s values. But those individual’s whose values most closely fit to the firms, feel most satisfied and intend to remain longer with the firm.
A newcomer feels the pressure of being an insider to outsider. This can be achieved only through the process of successful socialization (Schein, 1968). Socialization tactics used by organization provide an organizational perspective to the newcomer socialization. Organizations implement institutionalized tactics such as processing newcomers in a group together, establishing a fixed sequence of career progression, exposing newcomers to insider models for new role, pressuring newcomers to change their self-definition yield to compliant employees and eventually accept organizational values. Whereas, organizations implementing individualized tactics such as individual processing, variable career progression, few existing role models and greater acceptance of self lead to innovative employees who are less accepting of status quo. (Greenhaus & Callanan,2006). Newcomers use the experience of these activities to learn by engaging in trial-and-error behaviors. They will also vary in the degree to which they engage themselves in work-related activities. Involved individuals as newcomers are better accommodated in their work than those who were not (Louis, 1980).
Psychological Contracts
A study conducted by Hui, Lee & Rousseau (2004), mentioned that the concept of psychological contract was first introduced in 1960’s to characterize mutual expectation between the employer and employee. This contract varies in terms of content and degree to which they are fulfilled which has an impact on employee outcome such as retention, turnover and contribution to the employer. These beliefs are based on the perceptions that promises have been exchanged and accepted by both parties. This engenders cooperation and evokes norms of reciprocity. Transactional, relational, and balanced contracts represent important forms of psychological contract in employment. Transactional contract refers to a short-term exchange of explicit benefits and contributions that are highly monetary or focus on economic advantage. In contrast, relational contract refers to a long-term arrangement without certain performance–reward contingencies. The third form, balanced contract, is a combination of open-ended relational emphasis as well as the transactional feature of well-specified performance–reward contingencies. The promises could be implicit or explicit. Organization and employees can adapt with each other in a satisfying and productive way through a psychological contract (Hall & Moss, 1998).
An interesting research by Hess & Jespsen (2008), investigated the psychological contract comparing Generation X and Generation Y and the career stage difference. The studies reveled that Gen Y is seen to be influenced greatly by technological advancements and akin to Gen X, have observed their parents’ affected by corporate downsizing. To this, Gen Y will want higher salaries, flexible working arrangements and more financial power than Gen X. Gen X was also greatly influenced by changes in the labor force that includes corporate downsizing which saw their parents experience mass redundancies. This resulted to Gen X being seen as potentially cynical and untrusting of organizations.
Mentoring
Mentoring as described by Kram (1985) is, “a relationship between a younger adult and an older, more experienced adult [who] helps the younger individual learn to navigate the adult world and the world of work”. Mentors are not only a source of learning for newcomers but also play an important role in the emotional and development of newcomer’s self-esteem and work identity. Mentoring relationships is a critical developmental task especially during early career stages, since the advice and guidance of a mentor can be an invaluable resource as the individual seek to establish themselves during this career stage. (Greenhaus & Callanan, 2006). As a newcomer an individual expects “supportive autonomy” which would provide him with a sufficient challenges and autonomy that would let him learn and grow from the mistakes made (Greenhaus et al 2000). Mentoring also impacts the affective reactions to the work palace and positive psychological feelings regarding one’s career. It is purported to influence career progression and enhance a sense of professional identity and self-competency. Affective reaction could be job satisfaction and commitment. Moreover, there is a positive relationship between mentoring and socialization (Allen et al., 1989). Organizational environment can facilitate or hinder the internalized needs or accomplishment of goals (Hall & Moss, 1998). Kram (1985) also outlined two types of mentor function, first is career-related support and second psychosocial support.
Career Related Support
This type of support enhances newcomers to advance in the organization. This includes the mentor functions of sponsorship, exposure and visibility, coaching, protection, and challenging assignments, which influences career progression. This function is possible because of the senior’s position, experience, and organizational influence. The newcomer learns the ropes of organizational life, gain exposure, and obtain promotions and compensation. Career related support is more objective in outcomes such as promotions and compensation.
Psychosocial support
This type of support deals with the interpersonal aspects of the relationship and refers to “those aspects of a relationship that enhance an individual’s sense of competence, identity, and effectiveness in a professional role” (Kram, 1985). The types of psychosocial functions include role modeling, acceptance, confirmation, counseling, and friendship. Psychosocial support is more affective and less tangible in nature. It displays the signs of career success such as career satisfaction, career commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions.
A meta-analysis conducted by Allen et al(2004) concerning career benefits associated with mentoring for protégé both on objective( e.g. compensation) and subjective (e.g. career satisfaction) career outcomes. They examined mentored versus non-mentored group. The findings supported that there were benefits associated with mentoring but the effect size on objective terms were small.
According to Hackman & Oldham (1976), when mentoring involves providing challenging assignments, it may serve as a form of job enrichment, which in turn positively correlates to job satisfaction. To add to this, employees who accomplish the challenging task sense a psychological success which raises their self-esteem, competence, higher career involvement and encourage them to accept even higher challenges. But for this, a newcomer has to receive an adequate feedback from his superiors or mentors. Feedback plays a very crucial role in the early ears of establishment because the newcomer needs to feel competent and accepted. It also forms a mode to clarify the psychological contract which are assumed and expected. A research survey conducted by Roche (1979) shows that, “executives who had experienced a mentor relationship were earning more money at an earlier age, were better educated and were more likely to follow a career plan than those who had not established a relationship with a mentor.”
In a research conducted by Kram and Clawson (1984), that focused on cross-gender mentoring, have reveled that men have been helped to advance in their careers by the interest and personal guidance of a mentor. On the other hand, women mentoring have got into problems such as sexual attraction, marital disruption and damaging gossip. Additional research on gender based mentoring have shown that mentor’s gender matters in the type of mentoring provided and benefits accrued. Female mentors provide more of psychosocial mentoring as compared to males. In addition, male mentors are associated more with career related outcomes such as compensation and promotion. Additional research also shows that there is greater psychosocial mentoring with the same gender or same race mentoring as compared to cross gender or cross race mentoring. (Greenhaus & Callanan, 2006). Also, formal mentor programs can enhance newcomers’ socialization or increasing diversity in the organization.
Organizational politics are inevitable which can create uncertainty, insecurity and confusion among the newcomers, which is generally sensed at a higher intensity at the early career stages.” Having a senior member of the organization as a mentor help mitigate the potentially debilitating effects on politics, especially early in one’s career and can go a long way in this regard.”(Greenhaus & Callanan, 2006)
Conclusion and Implications
It becomes necessary to understand the practical importance of different aspects that plays a significant role during an individual’s early career in the organization. Every employer should try to help new employees to integrate and adapt into an organization. The realization of organizational processes can be facilitated once the necessary information can be easily retrieved and the proper task-solving procedure is learnt. As a newcomer in the early stage of career, an individual learns more about his desires and needs, managing work and personal life and learning from training. With the increasing globalization, research on socialization intervention in the field such as bridging cultural difference and its adaptation in the early stages of career in a multinational environment has been increasing. Moreover, it becomes necessary for an organization to have a strong positive culture which would facilitate newcomer’s adjustment especially at the start of one’s career at establishment. The organization should manage socialization process by designing appropriate orientation/ training programs, matching newcomers with appropriate mentors and monitor socialization process to correct misunderstandings or to help newcomers make a sense of their early experiences. The implication of psychological contract is that organization should exercise caution in terms of promises and commitments they make to employees, particularly at the recruitment stage. When an individual joins the organization that is at his early stage of career, he has certain expectations in mind and the employer should take steps to ensure that they [newcomers] undergo a reality check that fulfills mutual expectations. Communicating these explicitly, consistently and accurately will facilitate congruence between the employer-employee relations and help avoid perception of contract breach allied to career management.
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