Trade in opium within China is recorded as early as the sixteenth century. Produced long distances away from China, in Persia and India, the Chinese were ignorant of how opium was produced. As original supply was not large, opium attracted high prices on the Chinese market. Originally it was an elitist purchase, being so expensive, but as the market was flooded and the price dropped it became available to the common labourer (Trocki 1999 p.22).
Around 1820 the Chinese themselves began producing opium, it was "... not before 1860 that local production began to fill even a small portion of the Chinese demand for the drug." (Trocki, 1999 p.22)new chinese wealth was created.key stone factor.
Part of the decision to enter the trade was based on the same mentality that lured the British to China in the first place. The need to retrieve lost silver and gold that had left the country due to the trade itself.??????
Farming needed intensive labour, this effected economies in many ways. Mass migrations of the chinese occured as a result of the need for precious metals miners??????? Chk Trocki p.92
1755-1820 saw the years of the old Canton system trade between the British East India Company (or EIC) and the Cohong. The Cohong were a guild of Canton merchants organised by the Chinese government to deal with foreign trade. In 1773 the EIC had gained the monopoly of opium cultivation in India. Although opium was still illegal in China, the EIC found its market in Southern China. Trade was almost underground at Canton amongst these traders (Trocki, 1999 p.97).
When the Portuguese attempted to develop a monopoly in the harbour, China ended the Macau opium trade in 1820. "Outer anchorages...floating warehouses..." became used instead. These lay off the China coast ready to recieve opium. Located at Lintin Island and near HongKong's harbour they were considered safe spots. Deals could be made with no one actually seeing the entire transaction through. These anchorages were owned and run by wealthy foreign opium dealers. American's Russell & Co and Britian's Jardine and Matheson and Dent & Co.Other European traders would do business in Canton.
Like in any lucritive business there were monopolies. When the EIC's ended in ???. The Jewish Sassoon family, supported by the British government (who took thier own cut of profit), were given the monopoly on the opium trade. In 1830-1831 over 18,000 chests were imported to Canton from India. Prior to 1839 Canton and Macao were the only legal ports open to foreigners in China, already these cities were rife with opium dens. China had became opium's 'mass market'. By 1836 opium imports had increased to over 30,000 chests and China faced a drug epedemic (Torckoi, 1999 p.93).
In 1832 the Chinese government sought to move the opium anchorages out. The foreign armed opium ships sailed north up Chinas coast, dealing thier opium to local merchants and mandarins. By 1844 a form of coastal trade had developed. (Trocki, 1999 p.102) In 1839 the Manchu Emperor ordered a ban on the trade. Lin Tse-hsu led the first anti-opium crusade in China, throwing 2000 chests of opium in the river. The Sassoons demanded British retaliation. The Opium war had begun. China's army ravagged from opium addiction was defeated.
1842 saw the British introduce the unfair "Nanking Treaty'. Opium was back in HongKongs harbour. The Treaty demanded full legalization of the opium trade in China, as well as compensation for the confiscated opium and territorial sovereignty for the Crown over 200 offshore islands. The old system of Canton trade, profitable to Chinese merchants before 1834 collapsed. Corrupt Chinese officials dealt with Western traders in the opium trade. "By 1838 even labourers were smoking opium and there were between two million and 10 million addicts in Southern China"(Buggy,1998 p.30)
The Manchu's weak oppressed peoples of China rebelled against the 'barbarian rule' in the bloody Taiping Rebellion (1850-64). China became further weakened with the second opium war (1856-60). British and France joined together to capture Beijing and subsequently enforced more unfair treaties on China. These included the legalisation of opium traffic within China, a maritime customs service controlled by Britian and eleven more ports opened in China for foreign trade (Buggy, 1998 p.32)
Trocki (1999:109) argues the legalisation of opium in China did little for the British except increase competition in the trade.
The European Industrial Revolution saw the major powers compete for 'spheres of influence' in China. Manufacturing improvements and steam-powered shipping brought China into the world market. Aside from procuring a naval base at Shandong, Britian secured a ninetynine year lease over the New Territories and Hong Kong.
Between 1870 and 1890 opium imported into China fell, regardless of the fact that China was under forced British treaties from 1870. By this time China had an estimated fifteen million addicts (Jennings, 1962 p.6) Chinese brokers now held the monopoly on the new legal opium trade. It was too late for the Europeans to develop thier own distribution networks (Trocki, 1999 p.119).
The Qing's self strengthening policy was actually supported by the Jardine's, a competitor of the Sassoon's in the opium trade.
Chinese discontent saw the rise of the Boxer Movement. Anti-foreign and anti-Manchu, this mass bloody rebellion led by the peasants of the northern provinces pushed the Chinese into forming a modern united state. 1905 saw the old examination system abolished.
Sino-British treaty 1906?? see (Courtwright, 2000 p.183) agreement to stop trade in China 1913 last export from India.
The Kuomintang (or KMT) was a Chinese Nationalist political movement. It's leader Sun Yat-sen in 1911 helped overthrow the Manchu's 'barbarian' dynasty. Sun Yat-sen hoped to create social and economic reform, uniting China through a military government. From 1925-1975 Chiang Kai-sek took over the KMT as leader. Sun Yat-sen's democratic reforms were never to be carried out. Chiang was corrupt, using his position of power he formed alliances with drug dealing Chinese warlords and gangsters. Chiang's repressive rule and fascist ideals suppressed the Chinese during his dictatorship. Chiang's opium profits financed his wars against the Japanese and Communists (Buggy, 1998, p.167 & Trocki, 1999 p.133).
Founded in 1921, against the dictatorship of the Nationalists, the Chinese Communist Party (or CCP) itself became corrupt. During 1927-52 Communists produced and exported opium from Shandong. Like Chiang the party used opium profits as a means to maintain political order. (Trocki 1999 p.134) During 1937-45 China was fighting off yet another Japanese invasion.
However in 1939 when the Communist government gained power, it forbid opium cultivation. The communists linked the anti-opium crusade with land reform and redistribution, emphasising the social harm of drugs. Peasants quitting the trade became objects of national pride for helping communist goals. Warnings disobedience would undermine the Anti-Japanese war were linked into the campaign (Zhou, 2000 p.381)
The first phase of the crusade (1949-1952) saw the development of the "General Order". A list of "specific instructions" developed to combat opium was given to the local authorities. The first nation-wide appeal to rid China of opium failed as the government lacked resources and was faced with increasing political pressures. The second phase of the campaign in 1952 was better organised. The Communists focus on collecting intelligence on drug trafficking led to greater success. Communist propaganda feuled mass public rallys and mobilised national sentiment. Harsher punishments, public executions and trials were tactics used to fight the opium epedemic. The two campaigns promoted were the Three Antis and the Five Antis. The campaign was to be invisible, leaving no paper trail. The government claimed secrecy was important in avoiding giving America anything it could use against China. Americans were blammed for the Chinese drug problem. (Zhou, 2000 p.382-386).
END CHINESE START JAPAN need both
Japans interest in the opium trade was calculated. Japanese Imperialism and effects of drugs on China. see booth
By the eighteenth century Japan knew of opium and it's medicinal worth.1837-1852 saw an increase in demand for medicinal opium in Japan. Opium farms began to develop at Settsu near the pharmecutical centre of Osaka to meet the demand. This domestic trade of opium had no government regulation until 1870. Brokers paid cash to the farmers for their raw opium, then sold it to the Osaka drugists. (Jennings, 1962 p.6)
The 1839-1842 Opium war in China worried the Japanese that the opuim trade would result in foreign agression. Government also became concerned that opium smoking could plague Japan as it had China. In a visit to Japan during 1853, the first American consul-general Townsend Harris warned "...that the English think the Japanese, too, are fond of opium, and they want to bring it here also..." (Jennings, 1962 p.7). Harris encouraged Japanese officials to restrict American merchants from bringing opium into Japan by creating a treaty with the United States. Through this treaty, Harris stated, Japan could also restrict British trade. Japan follwed this advice and 1858 saw the commercial treaty of opium introduced. American ships were allowed to import no more than three catties of opium to Japan. Larger amounts were confiscated and offeneders were fined fifteen dollars for each catty over the restricted amount (Jennings, 1962 p.7).
Japan mid 19th cent upheaval unequal treaties resulting from traditional policy of limiting foreign contact p5 jennings
domestic turmoil Meiji Restoration 1868
The Shogunate and the Meiji government were firm in thier policy to prevent opium smoking spreading into Japan. They stopped Western powers introducing opium with strict domestic control measures. "Sale of the drug for profit (i.e., for smoking) was punishable by beheading, while the maximum penalty for enticing persons into smoking opium was death by strangulation." (Jennings, 1963?? p.8) Other crimes such as purchasing the drug for sale or use were punished by banishment or prison. During 1890 drug use was unheard of in Japan. The Japanese government ordered all local authorities to document their opium stocks, quality aswell as quantity was recorded. Even reports on medicinal opium were to be recorded when the drug was given out(Courtwright, 2000 p.177).
