The NDSA places much emphasis on going through a strategic planning phase, developing business plans and forecasts to set targets for its future growth. However less emphasis is placed on determining if its workforce is capable of achieving the new and different demands this growth will lead to. By analysing the current capabilities of people, it is much easier to predict and overcome the potential barriers to achieving the targets set (Cheatle, 2001).
Because training and development is an investment, it is important to treat it as seriously as investments made in new technology or premises (Bartram & Gibson, 1997). Working out the benefits to be gained in comparison to costs is just as important before deciding on your investment. An effective training needs analysis will contribute to this by identifying training issues and priorities in a systematic way, not on an adhoc basis. By examining individual as well as overall aspects of the organisation, effective decisions can be made (Bartram & Gibson, 1997).
Thus the benefits to the NDSA are:
- Investment in training and development will have a focus and direction
- Priority training needs throughout the organisation will become apparent.
- Appropriate methods for meeting these needs will be identified
- Training will be systematic and planned but flexible enough to cope with
ad-hoc requests.
The consequences of not carrying out a detailed analysis of training needs are the negative of the above benefits. The people who pay the price ultimately are the employees who, without the right training and development, can be your biggest liability but who, trained effectively can become your biggest asset.
Concepts and Analysis
Since the goal of training is to contribute to the NDSA’s overall goals, as well as to the employees’ personal goals, training should be developed systematically (Nankervis et al, 2002). A key characteristic of training systems that contribute to competitiveness is that they are designed according to the instructional design process (Goldstein & Ford, 2002). The instructional design process refers to a systematic approach for developing training programmes (Wong, 2003). Figure 1 presents the components of the instructional design process. This process highlights that effective training practices involve more that just choosing the most popular and colourful training method (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart & Wright, 2002). A brief overview of the instructional design process will be provided; it is proposed the NDSA use this framework for the development of a training system.
Figure1: Systems Approach to Training
Needs Assessment
The first step in the instructional design process is to conduct a needs analysis. Figure 2 summarises the needs assessment process.
Figure 2: The Needs Assessment Process
A needs analysis will help determine whether training is necessary (Armstrong, 2001). A comprehensive model of needs analysis, the McGhee and Thayers (cited in Macky & Johnson, 2003) three level framework, starts at a strategic organisational level and works down to an individual employees need (Noe, Hollenbeck & Gerhart, 2002). Organisational analysis involves determining the appropriateness of training, given the organisations strategy, its resources available for training, and support by management and peer for training activities (Golstein & Ford, 2002). Person analysis involves 1) determining whether performance deficiencies result from a lack of knowledge, skill or ability (training issue) or from a motivational or work design problem 2) identifying who needs training; and 3) determining employees’ readiness for training (Noe et al, 2002). Task analysis includes identifying tasks and knowledge, skills and behaviours that need to be emphasised in training (Noe et al, 2002).
Instructional objectives are the desired outcomes of training, and are derived from the needs assessment. These objectives are important as they helps us to direct training design and specify the criteria used to evaluate the trainings effectiveness. Without these objectives, training is aimless (Noe et al, 2002).
Ensuring Employees Readiness For Training
The next step in the instructional design process is to evaluate whether employees are ready to learn.
Motivation to Learn
Although the managers at the NDSA are not often trainers, they can play an important role in the training process by ensuring that their employees are motivated to learn. Motivation to learn is the desire of the trainees to learn the content of the training programmes. Managers can ensure that their employees’ motivation to learn is as high as possible by ensuring employees self-efficacy (Noe et al, 2002).
Self Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to the employee’s belief that they can successfully learn the content of the training programme (Noe et al, 2002). To enhance self-efficacy employees must:
- Believe that they can learn the training content
- Understand the benefits of training
- Be aware of their career interests, training needs and goals
- Understand the effects of work environment (both situational constraints and social supports available)
- Possess basic (literacy) skill.(Wong, 2003)
Create a Learning Environment
Learning involves a permanent change in behaviour (Cheatle, 2001). Researchers have identified several conditions under which employees learn best and these are outlined below:
Employees need to know why they should learn
Employees learn best when they understand both the purpose and the expected outcome of training activities (Noe et al, 2002). Training objectives based on the needs analysis assist employees in understanding why they need training. A good training objective has several components:
- A statement of what the employee is expected to do (performance or outcome)
- A statement of the quality or level of performance that is acceptable (criterion)
- A statement of the conditions under which the trainee is expected to perform the desired outcome (condition) (Wong, 2003)
Employees need to use their own experience as a basis for learning
Ivancevich (2001) states that employees are more likely to learn when the training is linked to their current job experiences and tasks, that is meaningful to them. Enhancing the meaningfulness of training will involve presenting material using concepts, terms and examples familiar to trainees.
Employees need to have opportunities to practise
Practise involves training the employee to demonstrate the knowledge, skill and/ or behaviour emphasised in the training objective under the conditions and performance standards indicated in the objective (Noe et al, 2002).
Employees need feedback
Employees require information about how well they are meeting the training objectives. Effective feedback focuses on specific behaviours and is provided soon after the trainees behaviour (Anthony et al, 2002).
Employees learn by observing others
The social learning theory indicates that people learn through observing and imitating the actions of significant others (Noe et al, 2002).
Employees need training programmes to be properly coordinated and arranged
Good coordination ensures that the trainees are not distracted by events (such as uncomfortable room) that could interfere with learning (Noe et al, 2002).
Ensure Transfer of Training
For a training programme to be successful, trainees must be using the training in their work (Goldstein & Ford, 2002). Transfer of training refers to the use of knowledge, skills, and behaviours learned in training on the job (Ivancevich, 2001). Training programmes should prepare employees to manage their use of new skills and behaviours on the job. Within the training programme trainees should be provided with the opportunity to set goals for application of skills or behaviours on the job, identify conditions in which they may fail to use them, identify positive/ negative consequences of using them, and monitor their use of them. Managers can be active in this process by developing an action plan in collaboration with trainees outlining the steps the trainee will take to apply the newly learned skills and knowledge on the job. Transfer of training can also be enhanced by creating a support network among the trainees (Goldstein & Ford, 2002).
Training Methods
There are a number of methods that can be used to assist employees acquire new knowledge, skills and behaviours, these include:
- Instructional methods
- Off the job training
- Team/ Group Training
- Computer assisted learning.
For a full review of the training methods available see Armstrong (2001).
The specific instructional method used should be based on the training objectives identified.
Evaluating Training Programmes
An examination of the outcome of a programme helps to evaluate its effectiveness (Bartram & Gibson, 1997). There are three types of criteria for evaluating training: internal, external and participant reaction (Wong, 2003). Internal criteria are directly associated with the content of the programme (where the employee learned the facts/ guidelines covered in the programme). External criteria are related more to the ultimate purpose of the programme (eg improving the effectiveness of the employee). Participant reaction, or how subjects feel about the benefits of a specific training experience. (Ivancevich, 2001). A variety of approaches are available for evaluating training programmes (Nankervis, Compton, & Baird, 2002). One of the most widely accepted and used approaches was developed by Donald Kirkpatrick (Anthony et al, 2002), which is a multiple criterion evaluation system (Macky & Johnson, 2003). He identified four hierarchical levels of evaluation that should be performed for each training programme: reaction, learning, behaviour and results. Macky and Johnson (2003) state that each level is directly related to the next highest level.
Reaction- measures the trainees’ impression (affective emotional or attitudinal response) to training after the event. These reactions are generally gathered through questionnaires distributed to participants at the conclusion of the programme (Anthony et al, 2002).
Learning- evaluates the degree of learning that took place (Ivancevich, 2001). A variety of tests, such as performance tests or pen and paper tests, can be administered to determine the level of competency achieved by the trainees. Another approach is to have trainees demonstrate their level of knowledge through a simulated exercise or through role playing (Anthony et al, 2002).
Behaviour- behaviour evaluation of a training programme examines whether participants exhibit behaviour changes in their jobs (Macky & Johnson, 2003). Data used to evaluate trainees behaviour can be collected from individuals, such as supervisors or co-workers who work closely with the trainees to evaluate their performance on the job (Anthony et al, 2002).
Results- measures how the training has affected the organisation (Noe et al, 2002). Data collected to evaluate a training programme at this level may include: cost savings, improved employee attitudes, lowered turnover and absenteeism, or increased productivity (Anthony et al, 2002).
Ivancevich (2001) notes that a useful device to address the evaluation issue is to work with a systematic evaluation matrix. A matrix can assist those involved in training programmes to systematically review relevant issues or questions. Figure 3 illustrates a matrix, which can be used as a guideline for evaluating training programmes.
Figure 3: Evaluation Matrix
Action
To ensure that training at the NDSA is no longer a haphazard activity it is recommended that a systematic approach to training (relying on the instructional design model), as discussed above (and outlined in Appendix one) be implemented. The process should commence by conducting a formal training needs analysis. The goal of this task being to identify the actual and expected training needs of the NDSA’s workforce. An outline of how the training needs will be performed is presented in Appendix two.
Once an identification of the training needs has been assembled, the NDSA would need to determine how it plans to address those needs. A training strategy would need to be developed. A typical training strategy should outline the main components of training the NDSA needs and how these will be resourced. It will stop short of specifying exactly who the training is for, how it will be delivered and when people can access it, but it should provide an overview of what the NDSA’s needs are and how they are going to be addressed with reference to budget and workforce requirements.
In order to successfully implement the training strategy a training programme is also required. This plan should outline the different kinds of training and learning solutions the NDSA can offer and where and how these will be delivered.
To assist in operationalising the new training framework it is also recommended that a training policy for the NDSA be developed, outlining the NDSA’s systematic approach to training. The policy should outline how the training system is linked to the NDSA’s strategic business goals and objectives. It should also highlight the training responsibilities of top management, line managers and employees.
Once the identified training is delivered, to ensure transfer of training it is recommended that action plans be developed. Line managers can be active in this process by developing an action plan in collaboration with trainees outlining the steps the trainee will take to apply the newly learned skills and knowledge on the job. Support networks can be established of those employees who attended the specific training, to reinforce the knowledge, skills and behaviours learned.
Existing policies would need to be revised to align them with the training policy and strategy developed.
In summary it is recommended that training be linked to the NDSA’s strategic business goals and objectives, be supported by top management and rely on the instructional design model to ensure quality training and to contain costs. This training framework will create a working environment that encourages continuous learning. This environment will ensure that the NDSA can continue to be responsive to the Northern region District Health Boards evolving needs in a constantly changing environment.
Measurement
It is widely accepted that the measurement of change is important if we are to evaluate whether an action has been successful or not.
The development and documentation of a training strategy, training policy and training plan would indicate that some of the recommendations have been acted upon. The practical implementation of the training strategy (based on needs assessment outcome) and training programme will be the delivery of the training described by them.
The real success of the new training system can be assessed ultimately on the basis of the success and health of the NDSA as an organisation, in :
1. Meeting the requirements of the District Health Boards (evidenced through feedback to the General Manager of the NDSA from NDSA Board Members who review monthly reports supplied to them of the NDSA’s performance)
2. Reflected in recruitment and retention statistics over time (these statistics can be analysed pre implementation of the training system and 6 months and then 12 months post implementation to see if change exist).
Employees attitudes regarding the NDSA’s new training framework can also be canvassed, via questionnaire, or through an informal interview.
However, assessments can also be made of specific training programmes independently either using the evaluation criteria previously outlined in the body of the report or through some longitudinal analysis. This framework is outlined in Figure 4. The ideal assessment framework involves a cost benefit analysis of the skill or knowledge a group who has attended a training programme possess compared with a control group not receiving the training.
Figure 4: A model of the longitudinal cost benefit analysis for training effectiveness using a control group
Conclusion
Changing job and environmental demands means that the NDSA will be required to review and up date the knowledge, skills and capabilities of their workforce if they are to continue to meet the District Health Board requirements. Training is the primary process by which this is accomplished. Training should be regarded as a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Training is a process. The process commences with the recognition or anticipation of a problem and the derivation of a training need (through organisational analysis, job analysis and person analysis). Training should be driven by the conversion of these needs into a set of objectives which, coupled with an assessment of the operating context, determine the content and method of delivery. Evaluation is a vital component of this process.
This report presented an alternative to the fragmented approach to training, which currently exists in the NDSA. It proposes the adoption of a systematic approach, one in which results in the development of a framework, which promotes the NDSA as a learning organisation. This approach includes needs assessment, design of the learning environment, consideration of employee readiness for training, transfer of training, training methods, and evaluation for training.
It was acknowledged that the training framework could contribute to the NDSA’s effectiveness as an organisation when it is linked to strategic business goals and objectives, and relies on an instructional design model.
References
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Armstrong, M. (2001). A handbook of human resource management and
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Bartram, S., & Gibson, B. (1997). Training needs analysis: A resource for
identifying training needs, selecting training strategies, and developing training plans. Gower: New York.
Cheatle, K. (2001). Mastering human resource management. Palgrave: New
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Cushway, B. (1999). Human resource management. Kogan Page: London.
Goldstein, I. L., Ford, J. K. (2002). Training in organisations: Needs
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Appendix One: Components of Instructional Design
-
Needs Assessment
- organisational analysis
- person analysis
- task analysis
- Ensure Employees “Readiness” To Learn
- attitudes and motivation
- basic skills
3. Create a Learning Environment
- identify learning objectives and training outcomes
- meaningful material
- practice
- feedback
- observe others
- administer and coordinate programme
4. Ensure Transfer of Training
- self management strategies
- peer and manager support
5. Select Training Method
- presentational techniques
- hands on techniques
- group techniques
6. Evaluate training
- identify training outcomes and evaluation design
- cost benefit analysis
Appendix 2: Performing A Training Needs Analysis
Organisational Review
Goal: To identify the actual and expected training needs of the organisation
Data collection and Interpretation
a. Methods
- Reference to policy statements
- Analysis of the minutes from senior management meetings and board meetings
- Departmental records (personnel statistics, staff appraisal records etc)
- Formal and informal interviewing
- Questionnaire surveys
- Observation
b. Source of information
- Senior management
- Information to be reviewed:
- Job descriptions
- Job specifications
- Recruitment plans
- Labour turnover statistics
- Other service departments
The analysis of this information is guided by the goal of identifying problems that require training solutions, weighing the relative importance of these training needs to identify critical training needs, and ensuring that the environment is conducive to the implementation of training solutions. Decisions may also have to be made regarding the prioritising of approaches or activities (eg where training is a controversial issue, where resources are insufficient to tackle all identified problems). Prioritising training needs will be guided by the following:
- Consistency with organisational objectives
- Consistency with training policies (if changes warranted- why?)
- Acceptability to senior management, departmental managers, and staff
- Practical and acceptable to trainers and trainees
- Feasibility in terms of resource availability or acquisition
- Identifying those responsible for designing, implementing and evaluating the training
Job Analysis
Organisational analysis provides the initial link between organisational objectives and the training process. The next step is to the job content and individual capabilities that are required for effective performance. The process of job analysis involves:
- Analysing what plans/ rules/ concepts etc. that guides job performance
- What cues are used in initiating, controlling and completing each task or sub tasks
- What KSA’s are required to respond effectively to the relevant cues at each stage in the task
- Defining the consequence of actions
The Analysis Process
Pre analysis- is a training required? Even where a shortfall between job demand and capabilities is recognised, questions should still be asked regarding the need for training. This process can be facilitated by asking about:
- Organisational losses as a consequence of inadequate performance
- Is information available from other sources
- Time taken to reach adequate standard without training
Job Analysis- care should be taken to assess the real, rather than the assumed, job training need. The analyst needs to know:
- Available sources of information
- Data collection methods
Sources of Information
- Job holder (implicit vs explicit)
- Job holder supervisor
- Service departments-personnel, finance
- Records- job description/ specifications, organisational charts, plans
- Suppliers manuals
Method of Analysis
- Critical incident
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Diaries
- Content analysis
- Behaviour analysis
- Repertory grid
Outcomes
Write revise job descriptions
Write / revise job specification
Individual Analysis
Individual analysis must address three issues:
- Present level of competence
- The training needed to promote effective performance
- Aptitude for acquiring the KSA’s necessary for effective performance
Employee capabilities and aptitudes can be assessed in a number of ways:
- Job coaching
- Appraisal interviews
- Job samples
- Psychometric testing
A systems approach to Training: report to the NDSA Board
