Throughout the course of history many bids for conquest have been made, but surprisingly one of the most successful could be attributed to the Mongols under Genghis Khan.

the Anda or blood brother, which was marked by drinking a few drops of blood from each of the

parties and represented eternal friendship. Thus kinship and patrilineal accession to power was

further complicated.

     The tribal people were very poor at the time of Temujin’s birth. Through these internecine

conflicts they had not only managed to destroy clan order, but decimate their already scarce

resources. They were reduced to eating whatever they could find, such as dogs, mice, wolves,

horse afterbirth, lice, etc., and wore clothing that reflected the same. Cannibalism was also

observed, although this was surely in extreme cases. The tribes of the steppe were hungry, not

necessarily for power, but to simply survive.

     This destitution gave impetus for one who would bring the tribes out of their plight. The tribes

needed a leader who would somehow manage to gather the energies of the tribes into a coherent

force of resource gathering. Thus, Temujin’s birth was foreseen amongst the people.

     From a historical viewpoint there are debates about the conditions, especially regarding the

dates of Temujin’s birth, since the nomads were illiterate and uneducated. Zhao Hong would

notice that when he asked the Mongols their age they would laugh and say “We have never

known it”, while Herbert Franke noted that the Jurchids (Chinese nomads) would celebrate their

birthday on any of the feast days, since they didn’t know when they were born.  Thus it could

be concluded that as far as dates or events, accuracy is questionable. However, we will assume

that Temujin was born circa mid 1160’s.

 

     Temujin was thrust into a tempestuous world and his existence personified what life on the

steppe was like at the time. When he was a boy, his father Yesugui was poisoned by Tartars in

response to the abduction of his mother Ho-elun from the Merkits. Resources were such an issue

that in response to constant thievery, Temujin killed his half brother Bekhter,  though spared

Belgutei at Bekhter’s request. He was kidnapped by the Tayichi’ut, and narrowly escaped. Later,

he married Borte, an Ongirrat, as arranged by his father at a young age.

     Temujin’s inferior standing among the tribes sought him to an alliance with the Kerait leader

Toghrul, and pledged himself a vassal to the patronage of this Anda of his father. The Keraits

were a powerful tribe who would help elevate Temujin’s standing by aiding him in battles and

later become a stepping stone to his ultimate rule.

     His wife Borte would be abducted by the Merkits, and the Merkits would be defeated by the

combined forces of Toghrul, Jamuka (an boyhood Anda of Timujin), and Temujin. Jochi would

be born to Borte on the way home, and although possibly illegimate by way of the Merkit leader,

would still be embraced by Temujin.

     Temujin would become leader of the Borjigid tribe circa 1185, becoming a khan of his own.

He would break with his alliance with Jamuka, due to overt power aspirations. They would do

battle at Dalan Balzhut, where Temujin would be defeated, however alliances were formed that

gave Temujin hope of one day becoming the great Khan. Temujin flees the area and here we find

a long gap in his history, of which it thought that he was in China.

     Temujin finally does become the great khan, or Genghis Khan, in 1206. This was after

defeating the other tribes, including those of Toghrul and Jamuka. Although Jamuka had been

proclaimed Gurkhan (universal ruler) in 1201, he was finally defeated and executed by

Temujin after a series of bloody intertribal conflicts. Thus after a sanguinary struggle over the

conniving, backstabbing politics of the steppes, a khuriltai (grand meeting of all tribes) was held

and  Temujin was elected Genghis Khan.

     The coming of Genghis Khan was a much heralded event, and the shamans, who were the

primary religion of the Mongols aided his rise to power. Like said earlier, the steppe people

needed the ultimate “big man” and the shamans certainly saw Temujin’s potential. Thus shaman-

istic propaganda was used. Kokuchu, Genghis’s leading shaman, would proclaim from God “I

have given the whole surface of the earth to Temujin and to his sons.” Other mystical visions

were reported throughout the steppes, both Genghis’ birth and mandate of heaven.

     In order to deny further power struggles on the steppes with regard to his mandate, the Khan

formulated the Yasa, or code of laws. The Yasa was what the nomads needed to bring law and

order, as well as peace, to their lands.  This is quite a concept considering everything was done

by the traditional rulings of the tribal chiefs. The Yasa was quite Draconian in its application. For

example, adultery, theft, lying, urinating inside dwellings were all punishable by death. It

contains other less severe rulings on things such as clothes (to be worn until worn out), hygiene

(no bathing in spring or summer), and alcoholism (only three times a month is acceptable). 

The household was also seen as very important and wives were expected to tend to the domestic

affairs while the husband was gone, while the adultery prohibitions kept peace within it. There

are other less significant codes of the Yasa, but the main point is that the lawlessness of the pop-

ulation had to be overcome by the central rule which Genghis Khan maintained.

     Khan also overturned the power of the tribal aristocracy by militarizing the entire population.

Every male was liable for conscription, and this was welcomed since his military organization

was opportunistic for those considered of inferior status, as Khan once had been, and rewarded

all who agreed to denounce their tribal ties to serve him. The “common” nomad could therefore

be a commander or other exalted position after proving themselves and becoming ba’atur

(hero). 

     The army was divided into divisions of 10, 100, 1000, and 10000 (tumen). This army was

assigned according to the Khan and organized so as to prohibit any conspiracies against him.

This fighting unit was intended to replace the solidarity of the tribes, and the Yasa strictly enf-

orced this. Warriors were required to aid other warriors, and retreat was not tolerated under

penalty of death. Also, commanders were never to ill-treat their men and those who were unfit to

lead were replaced by a subordinate. In addition to the army, he established a personal guard of

10,000 strong kashik, who were his elite and outranked even the highest army commander.

     With these military and civilian laws in place it was now possible for Genghis Khan to move

forward with his vision and save his desperate people.   Like any goal, the prerequisites must be

met first in order to continue. Genghis Khan had met those prerequisites: he met the demands of

the people for a consolidated rule, he gave them laws that would facilitate military operations,  

he organized the military, and had a prime objective to meet. After living in miserable poverty,

the nomads needed to expand their base of resources if they were going to survive. They were

hungry people, which could be considered the most instinctive motivation for killing and warlike

behavior.  

     There was little consideration for the logistics of the Mongol army. By virtue of being steppe

nomads they could live off the land. This in turn made for a hardier constitution and their wild,

uncivilized mannerisms only made them more fiercesome opponents. As William of Rubruck

would later write to Louis IX “I tell you assuredly that if your peasants-without speaking of

kings and knights-would march like these Tatar (sic) kings and content themselves with the same

food, they could conquer the whole world.”

     The steppe nomads ability to live off the land also gave them a military edge. Their hunting

techniques were ritualized procedures at which beaters would drive the animal into the awaiting

encirclement, from where the animal would be killed. Blood shed was avoided in this killing, as

the animal’s blood was thought to contain it’s soul, so stoning, strangulation, and falcons were

used. The hunt began at an early age (around 3-5), when the child was to make his lifelong

association to the to the tools that would characterize the Mongols militarily, horses and

bows. The Hunt was a more realistic application of military training and was more effective than

any drill techniques because it was fun, inspired competition, and gave rewards (i.e. food).

     We cannot overlook the tactical advantage of the horse and the bow. The Mongols were not

the innovators of this style of fighting, as it been for over a thousand years by other steppe

nomads like the Huns or Scythians. The horse provided mobility and the ability to outmaneuver

opponents, while the bow enabled combat to be kept at a distance. Thus any opponent without

these would be helpless. The Mongols could strike at will, without being struck back. Most states

had incorporated some of these elements into their armies, though to a lesser degree. The Mong-

ols were simply an absolute form of this style, and their techniques were age old: feigned retreat,

encirclement, sweep, feint. These were all intended to draw the enemy out of a head on

engagement.

     The Mongol cavalry consisted of a light cavalry and a heavy cavalry, with the light cavalry

being more numerous by a typical two to one ratio. The light cavalry was armed with bows and a

quiver of two to three arrows. They were lightly armored with a helmet, round wicker shield, and

padded quilted coat. Usually they carried an additional hand held weapon such as light battle-

axe, mace, lasso, or saber. The heavy cavalry was armed similarly equipped but had heavier arm-

or which consisted of an iron helmet with leather flaps to protect the neck and a cuirass of

lamellar armor.

     The Mongols also practiced warfare as a means to achieve personal ends, vice political. This

was usually accomplished by the tribal chiefs who would re-distribute the captured booty, and

set aside a portion for the khans. Under Genghis Khan this booty was to be solely collected

through him and he, not the chiefs, would redistribute it. One of the key factors of Genghis

Khan’s success as a leader was his generosity to others, and when Genghis Khan prospered his

armies prospered. Thus war was lucrative, but also good for the supporters of Khan.

     If war was rewarding, not just a task to be played out by political pawns, then morale must

have been high.  When in battle they would shout “Ur-ah” (thought to be the source of the

modern “hurrah”) and make vicious noises that had a disheartening effect on the populations of

those they encountered. In a much later battle with the Japanese: (circa 1274):

     

     The Mongols disembarked, mounted their horses, raised their banners,

     and began to attack….(one Japanese)….shot a whistling arrow to open

     the exchange. All at once the Mongols down to the last man started

     laughing…..

Other societies may have chosen to express themselves through art, literature, religion, drama, or

technology but the Mongols had found their source of expression: Warmaking.

     The attack on China was a geopolitical inevitability for Genghis Khan. These peoples were by

steppe standards very rich, and had only exacerbated the nomads plight by exacting tributes.

China was divided into two states, the Sung in the south and the Chin in the north. Also, as a

buffer zone was the His-Hsia kingdom, which was not truly Chinese but instead Sinicized

Tanguts.

     The Tanguts were the weakest, and their conquest was relatively easy for the Mongols.

Genghis Khan would besiege the capital and build a dam to direct floodwaters onto the town.

The siege would last approximately three months, and the end result was a breach in the dam

which flooded out the Mongol camp. Peace negotiations ensued which gave the Mongols a rich

tribute but no auxiliary troops as Genghis had wished. Genghis Khan never forgot this.

     The Chin would fall next. Genghis Khan was actually a vassal to the Chin due to his ties with

Toghrul and his exile in China. The emperor had died and been replaced by one that Genghis

disliked. The Sung were threatening the Chin to the south, and there was internal conflict

within the empire itself. Genghis Khan would capitalize on and exploit internal struggles.

Genghis had ambassadors in the Chin who were actually spies and informants for him. He also

took advantage of defectors from the realm, who informed him that a coup was being suppressed

by the ruling house. These factors were crucial since the Chin were by far numerically superior,

with an estimated 120,000 horse archers and 500,000 foot soldiers to Khan total forces of

65,000.

     Khan would challenge his standing as vassal to the Chin and refuse to pay tribute in 1211 and

was able to march into Chin territory with the help of the Ongutt turks, who guarded the border

for the Chin but were secretly allied to the Mongols. The Khitans, another Chin ally, were incited

by the Mongols to revolt.

   

     Genghis would go on to take the Chin cities of Xuande-fu and Fouzhou, which was difficult

because the the Mongols were not well versed in siegecraft. However, once again, Genghis Khan

was able to capitalize on the Chin’s internal struggle and take advantage of deserting Chin

engineers who would teach siege warfare to the Mongols. The cities of Xuande-fu and Fouzhou,

and strategic Juyong pass were taken, and the Chin’s spare horse encampments were dispersed.

Genghis suffered an arrow injury and was forced to give command to his son Tolui. Also, a

Muslim spy was able to give them a secret pass which enabled to slaughter a garrison in stealth.

     The ruling Jurchids internal strife was compounded by the desertion of key officials into the

Khan’s service. The general Hushashu, who commanded a private army, would desert and enable

the Mongols to take Jijing pass. Hushashu would then go to the capital Zhongdu and murder the

emperor Chung-Hei, replacing him with his nephew. Thus by 1213-1214 the Mongols controlled

most of the territory north of the Huanhe River. The capital Zhongdu still remained unconquered

due to its fortifications, but was still a vested interested of the Mongols due to the Emperor’s

murder.

     The city of Liaoyang was taken without a fight due to one of Genghis commanders Yesen.

Yesen knew the city was to receive a replacement commander. He ambushed the appointee

enroute, took his letters of appointment to the city and masqueraded as the new commander. The

city thoroughly fell for the ruse, and their guard was let down. The Mongol general Mukali,

entered three weeks later and took the city without incident.   

     The capital was finally taken in 1215, and the Mongols commenced their bloody booty calls

which ended up in the deaths of thousands of citizens.  He demanded the emperor give all the

territories to him and henceforth call himself “King of Hunan”, instead of emperor. The emperor

declined and Khan handed the campaign over to Shi Tianni, another Chin defector. Genghis

Khan returned to the steppes to defeat insurrections of the Merkits and Naimans. 

     Genghis would defeat the Uighurs, a Turkic steppe tribe who had writing. Genghis would

adopt the Uighur script as his own and taught his children to read. Not only that, the Chinese had

provided him with educated people to further aid in his conquests and would later play an

important role in the administration of his empire.

     Genghis would be drawn into conflict with the empire of Khwarezm, ruled by Ala ad-Din

Muhammed. Trade has been established with the western neighbor of the Mongols, who enabled

western goods to travel untouched to the east. However, a trade caravan with one hundred

Muslim Mongols had been murdered under the notion they were Mongol spies in 1218. Genghis

reasonably asked that the offender, Inalchiq, be handed over for Mongol justice. Muhammed

refused and murdered two envoys, further incensing Genghis. Genghis would go on to conquer

Khwarezm as a result.

     The middle eastern armies were similar to the Mongols, in that they were of Turkish horse

rider origin. Here, Genghis Khan had to adopt a different strategy, but also had the advantage of

Chinese siege engineers. Genghis Khan used Chinese auxiliary forces to augment his army as

well, and his army was now estimated to be around 100,000 to 150,000 men. 

     The city of Ortrar (the sight of the caravan incident) was taken after a prolonged siege.

Inalchiq was executed by pouring molten silver into his eyes and ears. This sort of revenge

violence would further Genghis’ reputation as a terror, to which he will always be negatively

associated with throughout history.  Terror was increasingly used as a method of subjugation,

as this could bring about a quicker surrender, avoid battles, and save Mongol lives.

     The cities of Signakhi, Jend, Benaket, Bukhara, Samarkand, and Urgench were taken.

Muhammed fled to the city of Balkh south and was fearful of the loyalty of his Turkish troops,

since they too had deserted in Samarkand and been given Mongol uniforms. The Mongols

continued to sack further Khwarezm towns until Muhammed was finally driven out to an island

in the Caspian sea, where he died.

 

     Further raids in the Khwarezm empire would result in the conquest of Afghanistan and

Khurasan. The cities of Balkh, Nishapur, Heart, Thaleqan, and Bamian fell. Muhammed’s son,

Jelal al-Din still continued resistance and had actually defeated a Mongol army commanded by

Shigi-qutugu. Genghis Khan trapped al-Din along the banks of the Indus and defeated his army.

The young shah was allowed to escape, however, and later became an adventurer in Afghanistan.

     The middle eastern campaigns of Genghis Khan show a markedly destructive pattern. Cities

were looted, sometimes burned to oblivion and the civilians completely massacred. This

happened in Bukhara, Balkh, Merv, Nishapur, and Bamian. Since the Mongols had no real

interest in occupying these territories it would be inconsequential to them. It was also a harbinger

of doom for any future cities who resisted, terror would work wonders for the Mongols.

     The Mongols successes in Khwarezm can be attributed to the use of adopted siegecraft and

terror was further supplemented by the use of Muslim prisoners. These unfortunates were added

to the Mongol forces and served at the forefront of a Mongol rush, absorbing the brunt of the

attack and giving a false impression of numerical superiority. This would exhaust the defenders,

and when the Mongol troops really attacked they take advantage of the fatigue factor.

     

     Genghis Khan would be the controller of the Mongolian steppe lands, northern China, and the

northern Middle East by the time of his death in 1227.  He would set up administrations using

the local peoples, and monitor them through the use of darigochi. Upon his death he would

divided his empire into empire into four khanates under the rule of his sons, who later pursue

conquests into Russia, southern China, Korea, Japan, Egypt, and even Europe. His success was

due largely to his leadership and the Mongol armies under him.  

     The Mongol armies were not bound to the conventions of sedentary peoples, which gave them

numerous advantages. First of all, they were not hindered by religion. The Mongols were of a

one god shaman religion, however some of them were Christian, Buddhist, Muslim. Genghis

Khan respected all religions and through not imposing religion upon them (except for his

mandate) was able to keep their fighting spirit maximized.

     The nomadic tendencies of the Mongols enabled them to go anywhere. Mongols were

comfortable where ever they were, and setting up a camp was home to them. The hardships of

the steppe had given them survival skills to which no modern army could compare. Food could

be acquired through whatever means possible, and the plunders of conquest were only more of

an incentive for them to continue raiding.

     Also, the nomadic tendencies also enabled them to ensure that any battles fought were on

their terms, attacking cities when they were ready. This element of unpredictability could never

be countered by their enemies, and the only defense was to scatter forces across their lands,

thereby weakening it. Cities and towns were reduced to targets the Mongols could launch a

concentrated attack on and take before reinforcements arrived.  

    Once conquered, the cities were either assimilated into the army, left to cultivate their products

under a Mongol tax, or destroyed. Assimilation would only increase the Mongols offensive

capability, making the horde like a snowball turning into an avalanche. Taxing the citizens was

was equally beneficial to the Mongols, who directed it towards their steppe land populace. The

Mongols, as pastors and herders, were inherently untaxable which enabled a one way flow of

resources into the land. Destruction would crush the spirit of the enemy, and since the Mongols

really only sought to return to the steppes there was really no issue of  hostile occupation to

deal with. Puppet administrators would take of ruling the conquered lands, while diverting its

resources to the steppes.

     Use of the horse made the Mongols highly maneuverable. In order to fight them, one had to

catch them as they retreated, and then only be encircled and slaughtered (i.e. feigned retreat).

Mongols maneuverability also allowed their armies to disperse upon different areas and then

come together quickly into a consolidated force not unlike modern armies. As Napoleon would

later state: “March dispersed, fight concentrated”. 

     The Mongols were already a warrior-like society, and Genghis Khan exploited that to its

fullest through conscription. Being raised from an early age to hunt and use the bow gave the

Mongols an advantage of quality and efficiency over other troops, who in most cases, remained a

separate part of society like the Chin. The Muslims were employing Turkic mercenaries who

could be considered quality professional troops, but loyalty (especially when defeated) comes

into play. These troops could easily abandon their patrons at a single loss. The Mongols were a

quality fighting force whose loyalty was to Genghis Khan.

     Genghis Khan was able to harness the energies of his peoples, who rightly saw their leader as

the fittest to lead through the sheer survival of the fittest mentality of the steppe nomads. He in

turn made innovations in the somewhat primitive society, turning them from a chiefdom into an

empire which was to remain a force for several centuries. The Mongol armies under Genghis

Khan had enabled this and were the most effective and successful military ever known.  

     

---