"Explain the varying incidence of witch hunts in time and place across Europebetween 1500 and 1700".
Dean Miller History 2nd MA Semester 1 3. "Explain the varying incidence of witch hunts in time and place across Europe between 1500 and 1700". Matriculation Number: 02 203015 5 Tutor: Martine van Ittersum "Explain the varying incidence of witch hunts in time and place across Europe between 1500 and 1700". It has been estimated that during the period of 1500 to 1700 around nine million 'witches' were burnt at the stake throughout the European continent. The aim of this essay is to compare and contrast different time periods and specific areas of Europe between 1500 and 1700, and critically asses how the so-called witch-craze unravelled. From the period of 1500 to 1700 witches came to symbolize superstitious aspects of popular religion. Catholic and Protestant churchmen identified and persecuted witches as part of the campaign to acculturate the masses with 'acceptable' beliefs. Witch hunts peaked during the first half of the Seventeenth Century. In the south-western states of the Holy Roman Empire alone, it is estimated that more than 300 separate witch trials resulted in the execution of 2,500 people between 1570 and 1630, almost all women - in itself not surprising as church authorities and priests were all male. Theologians and judges sought to demonstrate that accused witches embodied the kingdom of the Devil. To some extent the Catholic Reformation wanted
Thucididies and Heroditus
"The historian's most important quality is accuracy". Discuss this view, with reference to any two historians in the classical period and explain how they contributed to history and if their work is reliable. Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the first historians that contributed greatly to historiography yet their styles of conveying and writing history are vastly different. Herodotus changed the way in which history was presented but it is mainly suggested that he was a great story teller and told facts. Yet, Thucydides is regarded as the Father or history as he went further, Thucydides did not merely attempt to retell history but went as far as to analysis sources and ask existential questions and hence he presented truth in history. Herodotus' methodology was a combination of "disciplined enquiry, based on research, observation, scepticism about information," and a "richness of storytelling". Herodotus broke away from the traditional written form for history which was epic poetry. He instead wrote in prose, "in what was then a relatively new literary form". He did this because he believed that "prose is more flexible." He believed that unlike poetry, prose allows for the entertainment of "all sorts of possibilities" and the playing "of stories one against the others" and as such he believed that prose supplied "freedom to historical writing". Herodotus in this
"Assess the differences and similarities between the tombs belonging to kings and those of their subjects".
"Assess the differences and similarities between the tombs belonging to kings and those of their subjects" To first assess the differences and similarities between the tombs of the pharaohs and those of their subjects, it is perhaps fitting to discuss why tombs were such a focal point of ancient Egyptian life. It was not uncommon to spend a good proportion of one's life preparing the place where you would be buried; the ancient Egyptians had relatively short life spans, and especially amongst women fatality rates were high. Thus it made sense to prepare one's tomb early on to avoid being caught out by death. The tomb was seen by all, king or peasant, as a home for eternity; life did not end with death. This is a very contrasting view to the one many of us hold today, which is why it is at first perhaps hard to grasp, but it was believed wholeheartedly that one passed into the afterlife after dying, where you would continue to live for evermore. A person was considered a split entity, comprising of at least three parts; the body, the soul and what was known as the ka, or the double. The ka was of grave importance, being considered as a spiritual being that was present at all times with a person. It was thought that a person's activities were actually those of one's ka, thus it was important to do that which would please the ka. This spiritual ghost remained in the tomb
"Debased Roman, yet Roman still": compare the roles of 'Romanitas' in two barbarian kingdoms - Ostrogoths in Italy and Merovingians in Gaul.
"Debased Roman, yet Roman still": compare the roles of 'Romanitas' in two barbarian kingdoms - Ostrogoths in Italy and Merovingians in Gaul Before the barbarian states established themselves as replacements to the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, Germanic soldiers had served in the imperial army, rising in rank and even all the way to the Senate; thus they had a similar material culture to Romans, and apart from their names, one could argue, they were indistinguishable. This dates back as far as the mid fourth century, where the Frank, Bonitus, served under Constantine I. Such prominent soldiers were normally more than illiterate boors. Some were self-made, for instance Arbitio, who became Master of Cavalry under Constantius II, having begun his career as a mere soldier. Other barbarians transferred their military power into Rome. These examples indicate an ostensible absorption of barbarians into Roman society. The disappearance of 'us' and 'them' probably did occur before 476, especially in the army. Resultantly, many Germanic leaders became highly Romanised, and this was reflected in their respective societies after the fall of the Western Empire. The Germanic people never destroyed nor restored the Roman world- they just found a home for themselves within it. One emperor in the East however, was enough for them. Romanitas is a concept of wider emporium,
"Europeans were less interested by the New World than their Classical Heritage"
"Europeans were less interested by the New World than their Classical Heritage" The discovery of the Americas in 1492 was a massive challenge to the accepted notions of the world; a world which was still viewed by many in Ptolemaic terms, and laid claims against the accepted wisdom concerning geography, theology, history and the very nature of man. However, despite the momentous implications of a new land and, more importantly, its heathen peoples, there was an apparent slowness to take any real notice of the New World from within the Old World. This lag cannot be explained either by slow dissemination of the news, nor by a lack of understanding of the importance of the discovery. Peter Martyr wrote to the Count of Tendilla and the Archbishop of Grenada in September 1493 to spread the news, opening with the words "Raise your spirits... Hear about the new discovery!" He talked of the gold Columbus found as well as the important news of the men they found, who were naked yet fought with bows and staves; men who had kings competing for power and yet worshipped celestial bodies. The excitement of the initial news was tremendous, and this was reflected in the demand for literature concerning the new discovery. Columbus's first letter concerning his discovery was reprinted 9 times by the end of 1493 and at least 20 times by 1500. Montalboddo's voyages went into print 15 times by
THE RISE AND FALL OF PAGANISM
To what extent did Julian's paganism resemble pre-Constantinian pagan religious practice and how did it differ? What problems did pagans have with Julian's religious approach? THE RISE AND FALL OF PAGANISM A vital aspect of any civilization is their religion. Not only does it serve as a guide for communities on how to act and to live together, but it is also a central governing body of the community, often working side by side with the local government. In today's society Christianity is the most common and popular religion. It has also given rise to other religious groups such as Protestantism and Anglicanism. In ancient times, however, paganism was the standard of religion. According to the definition found in the Catholic encyclopaedia, Paganism, in the broadest sense includes all religions other than the true one revealed by God, and, in a narrower sense, all except Christianity, Judaism, and Mohammedanism. The term is also used as the equivalent of Polytheism (q.v.). It is derived from the Latin pagus, whence pagani (i.e. those who live in the country), a name given to the country folk who remained heathen after the cities had become Christian.1 Paganism can also be described as a religious practice that was formed from the merging of fragments of beliefs, rituals, superstitions and traditions of the ancient civilization. There is no one doctrine or central writing
Why were the games important for the Romans? The games were important to the Romans for three main reasons, which will be explored in this essay. Firstly
Part 2 - Why were the games important for the Romans? The games were important to the Romans for three main reasons, which will be explored in this essay. Firstly, and most significantly, they provided the Romans with a sense of civilised order and democratic influence. Secondly the games held a mythological importance and religious symbolism which was inherent in society. Finally, the games reinforced already strong Roman values and morals. Each of these elements served to make the games vital to Roman society and culture. When the democratic system was altered to an imperial one, the emperors needed a way to appease the people, although they had lost the right to vote. The games fulfilled this role. To the Romans, the amphitheatre was a place of order, a triumph over chaos and lawlessness. They could communicate their feelings, and as the Emperor attended these games, they had the opportunity to voice their opinions directly to him. Occasionally it might be complaints about the cost of wheat, or calling for the removal of an unpopular official. The security of the crowd facilitated this, and the impression of direct communication was perhaps of more importance than the actual communication. The arena was a place of justice, where people saw criminals executed and social order established, and Romans had an interactive part to play; "The spectators demand that the slayer
Thucydides. hucydides draws sharp distinction between his work and that of his predecessors. He describes the care, which he took in ascertaining the truth about the events he writes of.
Thucydides Thucydides may be said to be one of the most highly regarded and respected historians of all time. His work perhaps having one of the most important influences on the writing and recording of history itself. Thucydides own ambition as a respected and unique writer are clear as he writes on himself "My work is not a piece of writing designed to meet the needs of an immediate public but was done to last forever". During Thucydides time (c.460 - 400) as a writer it is thought that literacy was considered relatively new to the world. It was much more common to write poetically rather than on a historic basis and even so, most other historians such as Heredotus chose to focus on a narrative style of writing. Contrary to this Thucydides dedicates himself to a level of accuracy in his writing rather than merely telling a story. He gained enormous prestige over the centuries for this and his work was quickly established "classic". His concern with objectivity exerted a strong influence on such later Greco-Roman historians as Polybius and Dio Cassius. Thucydides highly regards the Peleponesian war as the greatest war in Greek History. He bases this on the belief that both rivals; Athens and Sparta were at their peak of power and preparedness just before the immediate cause of the war. Thucydides argues that the events, which he relates, command attention because they
Warlords, Artists and Emperors: Power and Authority in Premodern Japan. Ancient Japan Portfolio - commentaries on passages.
Warlords, Artists and Emperors: Power and Authority in Premodern Japan Entry#1 (Week 2): Reading: Bock, F. 'The Rites of Renewal at Ise', Monumental Nipponica, 29 (1974); 55-68. This reading focuses and explores the rites of renewal of the Great Shrine of Ise. Through the reigns of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jito, the Shrine of Ise rose in importance and eventually became the ancestral clam shrine of the Imperial House and later continued to develop as it took on the image of a national shrine and claimed widespread support (p.57). The pure Shinto architecture of this Shrine may exist in other places in Japan yet the affect it has on the area of the Shrine of Ise furthers its unending succession. This reading looks at the significance of the continual and ritual renewal of the Shrine of Ise. This rebuilding is seen as a means of preservation of traditions and culture as even the materials- purified ceremonial axes and saws of ancient style (p.58) - which are used in the rebuilding show key characteristics of the Japanese culture. Religious notions are also preserved through this rebuilding; one example is the 'august mirror' which is place in a sacred container as a symbol of the Sun Goddess which is associated with the origin of the shrine and the kami belief (pp.59-60). To sum it up, the ritual rebuilding of the Shrine of Ise is seen as a symbol of the renewal of life
Why was Hadrian's Wall constructed?
Why was Hadrian's Wall constructed? Stuart Edwards 2003 Hadrian's Wall was built between Carlisle in the west and Newcastle in the East. The wall is 55 miles in length. It was constructed in 120 A.D under the order of the visiting Roman emperor Hadrian. The wall was built 80 years after the Roman conquest of Britain. The Roman Empire now at its prime had expanded form a small city state into a large empire spanning most of the ancient world, had just come out of a period of expansion, Hadrian decided that this had to change and ordered defensive frontiers to be built all along the empire's borders. There was an original front line further into Scotland, Antoine's wall, but it was found too rural and distant to supply or support so it was abandoned and the Romans fell back to The Stanegate road. The Stanegate road was built by Agricola and served as a major supply routes for the legionnaires defending the northern frontier Rome normally used natural defences to protect its borders these defensive lines included deserts and rivers but in northern Britain it was built out of stone, which was a common resource in that area. When the wall was being built the resources and the manpower came form the legions guarding the frontier. Each centurion was given a part of the wall to build; along this stretch of wall they would place a hallmark stone so their commander would know who
