human beings. This partly explains the rise of collective hatred towards the Jews, but we shall now
look at Adorno and Horkheimer's Elements of Anti-Semitism.
The first part considers two Liberal theories, firstly arguing that the Jews are viewed as an
opposing race and must be destroyed. The second, that irrational anger in society no longer has a
place. It therefore must find an outlet, and it was found in the Jews. Part two looks at anti-
Semitism as a populist movement. "Anti-Semitic behaviour is generated in situations where
blinded men robbed of their subjectivity are set loose as subjects."9 Freud argued that civilisation
involves giving up our barbaric pleasure in sacrifice, but in doing so we make an internal sacrifice;
we become neurotic and repressed. The pogroms were no more than an imprinted schema of
ritual murder and sacrifice.
The third chapter examines bourgeois anti-Semitism. It is argued that the Jews were the
spreaders of capitalism, although not real capitalists as they did not own the means of production.
Even so, the Jews were the scapegoats for those who suffered under the capitalist regime. Part
four examined the religious aspect of anti-Semitism, suggesting that the link between the religion
and the consciousness has been cut, through enlightenment and domination.10 Therefore, "It is
impossible to arouse the feelings of the masses today by suggesting that the Jews are obstinate
unbelievers."11 The fanatical faith in the leader is an outlet for repressed religious feelings.
Parts five and six deal with the theory of mimesis, the human instinct to mimic, and false
projection. True mimesis, the basic instinct of mimicking the environment, has been altered by
civilisation. Mimesis went through a magical phase of dressing and dancing in the form of
animals; art and theatre are also forms of mimetic behaviour. It then reached its scientific phase.
Science and technology has allowed us, instead of mimicking our environment, to control and
dominate it; we force the environment into our own image. The bourgeois mode of production has
turned mimesis into social domination as it needs to control and produce a sense of order. Control
and domination does not mean the fear and terror of nature goes away, on the contrary it is
always with us but it is repressed and pushed into the far reaches of the id. The ego which Freud
argues separates the external world from itself12, Adorno and Horkheimer suggest developed to
resist the instinct to mimic. "In the constitution of the ego reflective mimesis becomes controlled
reflection."13 The id is not simply a receptacle for natural mimetic behaviour, but as Freud
suggested it is; "...the unconscious locus of the primitive, unsocialized instincts."14
The sense of smell embodies a deep desire for lower forms of existence,15 and a prominent
feature of many Jews is their nose. Freud argued, cleanliness, beauty and order are requirements
of civilisation,16 yet in a civilised society, smell together with uncontrolled sexuality and bodily
excreta are considered as base instincts and a feature of lower animals. When fault is found with
civilisation we try to find the roots of the problem. Adorno and Horkheimer argue that fascism and
capitalism go hand in hand, the Jews were an obvious target because they were the non-
producers, the middle men. Once a group has been marginalised its members become the focus
of hatred, all the repressed instincts of sexual desire, bodily dirt, and greed are recognised in the
'other'. The hatred and fear felt is projected onto the other, and if the other has those feelings
then they must hate and want to harm those to whom the feelings really belong. This is a false
projection.
"This type of false projection was equivalent to paranoia, but instead
of being a personal problem, paranoia had been politicised in the
modern world. To many who succumbed to its appeal, fascism
provided a mass delusional system that was mistaken for reality."17
Fascism with its rituals, uniforms, and gestures and words being repeated is a vehicle for false
mimetic behaviour, creating a desire to dominate and a frenzy of collective hatred. "The normal
member of society dispels his own paranoia by participating in the collective form."18 Enjoyment is
found in the persecution of the other, and this brings us back to the charismatic leader as it is
done through both identification and mimicry of authority.
The final section of Elements of Anti-Semitism, the only part written after the end of World War
Two, opens with the statement: "But there are no more anti-Semites."19 Although this sounds like
an absurd statement, it is suggested here that Adorno and Horkheimer were saying that no one
would admit to being an anti-Semite in the United States, but anti-Semitism existed in a less
obvious form. Political candidates would not stand on an anti-Semitic ticket, but it was still one of
the planks of their platform. By voting for them the fascists can return to power, because you
cannot choose the planks you want without taking the whole stage.
One of the arguments that has been put forward against Adorno and Horkheimer's work is that:
"...there is an element of biological determinism which makes the argument against the racist,
racist itself."20 This may be true to a certain extent, but if the Authoritarian Personality is read it
becomes clear that they certainly recognised there was anti-Semitism in the United States.21 They
argued that capitalist societies help to produce a weak ego, leaving people open to the attraction
of demagogic personalities.22 A second argument against Adorno and Horkheimer is that they
appear to be arguing that the only reason the ego develops is because it is in conflict which the
id.23 Once again this is true of the Dialectic of Enlightenment, but Horkheimer has been seen to
take a more traditional Freudian view of ego development through the father.24 Adorno and
Horkheimer have been criticised for linking anti-Semitism in America with that of Nazi Germany.25
This it is suggested here is a ridiculous complaint, firstly prejudiced views can never be tolerated
as they can lead to the most monstrous behaviour as was seen in Germany. Secondly, as
America, is a country of great power anti-Semitism there could have global effects. Adorno and
Horkheimer, although presenting different elements of anti-Semitism made no attempt to weigh
the relative significance of each one.26 This leaves the reader with a desire to ask them which
ones they considered the most important, but as Nietzsche urges, one should learn: "...to employ
a variety of perspectives in the service of knowledge"27
There are three remaining problems with Adorno and Horkheimer's work which need to be
discussed . Firstly, their work depends heavily on Freudian theories of civilisation, the ego and the
id. If the reader believes that Freud was a charlatan as Masson, Schatzman or Crews do, then
there is nothing left of their argument except that capitalism is the cause of anti-Semitism. This
brings us to the second difficulty with their work. If capitalism is as tightly connected to anti-
Semitism as the authors suggest, then why were the Jews persecuted in the USSR during Stalin's
regime? There is also a problem with other forms of prejudice which one assumes have a similar
basis to anti-Semitism. Yet Rwanda, which is not an advanced capitalist state, has witnessed
similar atrocities to those that took place in Germany even if not on the same scale. Finally,
Adorno and Horkheimer appear to offer no way out of this depressing state of affairs. We all have
these destructive repressed instincts buried in our individual id, with an ever weakening ego due to
the expansion of mass culture, at the slightest inducement the contents of the id will break free
and we shall return to barbarism.
This essay has attempted to outline Adorno and Horkheimer's account of collective hatred; their
connection of anti-Semitic behaviour with capitalism, and how the cult of the star and the
charismatic leader have similarities. They suggested that rather than science and technology
producing more freedom, it has dominated the environment and the human race. In discussing
their theories of anti-Semitism it became clear that Adorno and Horkheimer considered the
perpetrators of the Holocaust to have recognised in the Jews all their own fears through false
projection. Although this essay has criticised their insistence in tying capitalism to anti-Semitism in
the way they did, and for having such a pessimistic view of the future, it is suggested here that
they have provided a plausible reason for collective hatred that many other writers were unable to
find. The contrast between the rationality of the means and the irrationality of the ends of the
'Final Solution' has brought forth many different explanations. These have ranged from historical,
to economic, to it was all Hitler's fault, but none of these on their own or when placed together
ever quite managed to explain why ordinary people could suddenly change into the monsters of
the Third Reich. Perhaps Adorno and Horkheimer have succeeded where others have failed.
References
1. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p3
2. Watson, S. & Jowers, P. (1997) In Owen, D. ed. Sociology After Postmodernism.
Sage Publications, London. p175
3. Jay, M. (1994) The Jews and the Frankfurt School: Critical Theory's
Analysis of Anti-Semitism.
In Bernstein, J. ed. The Frankfurt School Critical
Assessments. Vol. I. Routledge. London p241.
4. Thomas, J. (1997) The Frankfurt School 1: Understanding Fascism.
University of the West of England, Lecture Notes 6th
November 1997.
5. Adorno, T.W. (1994) The Stars Down to Earth and Other Essays on the
Irrational in Culture. Routledge, London. p162
6. Adorno, T.W. (1994) The Stars Down to Earth and Other Essays on the
Irrational in Culture. Routledge, London. p164
7. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p164
8. Freud, S. (1973) Civilization and its Discontents Translated by Joan
Riviere. Hogarth Press, London. p37
9. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p171
10. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p176
11. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p176
12. Freud, S. (1973) Civilization and its Discontents Translated by Joan
Riviere. Hogarth Press, London. p 5
13. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p181
14. Benjamin, J. (1994) The End of Internalization: Adorno's Social
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15. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p184
16. Freud, S. (1973) Civilization and its Discontents Translated by Joan
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17. Jay, M. (1994) The Jews and the Frankfurt School: Critical Theory's
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Routledge, London. pp241-242
18. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p 197
19. Adorno, T.W. & Horkheimer, M. (1997) Dialectic of Enlightenment. Vergo, London. p 200
20. Clarke, S. (1997) The Frankfurt Institute - Theories of Hatred.
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21. Howitt et al (1989) Social Psychology: Conflicts and Continuities.
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22. Held, D. (1980) Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to
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24. Held, D. (1980) Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to
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