Bruce (2002) postulated that modernization resulted in structural specialisation/ differentiation. This means that as society began to modernise, institutions and roles began to become specialised. Religion used to hold a monopoly on several social functions, which include education, health care, and welfare assistance. Modernity and industrial growth generated income that could be invested in the specific needs of society, outside of religious influence. Differentiation resulted in the creation of more diverse work opportunities, which undermined the feudal nature of preceding institutions. The additional working opportunities filled in the gap between the gentry and the working classes. An egalitarian mentality developed, which according to Bruce (2002) made hereditary inequalities and hierarchies more difficult to sustain.
The reformation worked to encourage individualism, autonomy and individual thought (Martin 1978). Religion or Beliefs systems differ in their ability to cater for varying interpretations. For instance, some religions may claim a monopoly on a singular truth, whilst others may allow for slight variations. Individuals for the first time began to challenge the ‘truths’ proposed by belief systems. Particular religious institutions, which failed to accommodate or adequately address certain concerns, were left vulnerable to schism, and reduced membership. It became possible for individuals to maintain and perhaps even improve their social status. Particular roles in society began to shift in their degrees of power. The clergy for example, could be seen in some ways to posses a similar social status to a doctor, irrespective of the belief system to which the doctor belonged.
Societalization is a term coined by (Wilson 1982) which describes the transition from numerous small close-knit communities to larger industrialized cities. This community to society transition, perpetuated by the industrial revolution, had several implications to religion. Firstly, it became very difficult for a religion to maintain a single moral belief system. Larger cities allow for smaller competing belief systems to develop and grow. Larger cities also carried with them a larger stress profile: people had to work longer hours to sustain continual development. A larger and more successful economy necessitated the evolution of a new culture: driven by law, communication, trust, science, and less by religion.
An improvement in education accompanied economic growth. With an improvement in literacy, a larger cohort was able to address religious questions themselves by reading holy texts. Prior to this, there was reliance, and almost a passive acceptance of religious teachings administered by religious leaders. Individuals were able to draw their own conclusions. The bible was also translated in a variety of languages, which increased access. Personal interpretations and conclusions resulted in increased Schisms and sect formations. The rising working class moved forward to more democratic and represented religions like the Baptists and Presbyterians.
The effects of increased economic growth can be said to reduce religious significance for other reasons likewise. According to Durkheim, in the Elementary forms of religious life (1912), religion in itself is not simply a set of beliefs and ideas (as assumed by Weber), but it also incorporates a entire systems of actions that involve formal rituals and ceremonies. He suggested that these systems of actions are important because they served a functional purpose of sustaining social solidarity, order, and cohesion. He proposed that religion serves to manage individuals in times of crisis. For instance, in death the church offers a funeral service that helps to prevent breakdown. The poor often also found solace in religion in its promise of a better after life. However, as society became more affluent, and technology progressed more middle class jobs became available and therefore individuals felt less of a need to be comforted by a better life in heaven. Similarly, as health care improved sudden and unfortunate deaths became less common, so individuals turned to the church less for comfort.
We then come to the problem of relativism. The Christian church in the middle ages, maintained a monopoly on truth. However, cultural diversity with a desire for equality, works to breakdown the claims to authoritative knowledge. It became paradoxical that a religion could hereafter present the idea that God rules our private life but not the lives of others in a public place (Bruce, 2002). Whilst slight forms of relativism can keep people involved in religion, it becomes problematic when it is able to treat beliefs that contradict its authoritative assertions as valid. It simply promotes the idea that there is no single truth. A level of tolerance becomes necessary in a diversifying society, but it weakens the certainty over the will of God. A consequence of religious relativism and liberalisation seemed to be a decline in overall religiosity. If, so many faiths offered a road to God, many began to fear hell less.
There is some very strong evidence to support the decline of religion in modern Britain. Firstly church attendance statistics illustrate a clear drop over the last 150 years. The earliest available statistics on church attendance originate form 1851 (Census on religion). This survey found that 40% of he population attended church. These statistics dropped to 35% by 1900, 20% by 1950 and 6.3% by 2005 (Brierly 2006). Statistics have also shown that Anglican and Roman Catholic churches have been most affected. It has also been noted that between 1998 and 2005, 1100 new churches opened whilst 1300 closed, suggesting a further decline in religious membership. Outside of actual church membership, statistics also show a decline in religious ceremonies and practices. In the 1920’s, just over 90% of children were baptised, whilst in 2001 this dropped to only 45%. Similarly, there has been drop in marriages within the church. According to Bruce (2002) 70% of couples got married in church’s in 1900, whilst only 53% did by the year 2000.
One assumption in the secularization paradigm is that modernity is necessarily damaging to religion. However, a problem in the secularization debate arises: it is dominated by a reference to a traditional and typical religious experience that predated the age of enlightenment. The western world according to Davie (2002) experiences the enlightenment period in two very different ways. The American enlightenment for example, could be summarised as a ‘freedom to believe’ whilst the European can be seen as a ‘freedom from belief’. These descriptions indicate two very different relationships with modernity, and this is reflected in the statistics likewise. We do get a very different impression of the state of religion when we extend our research beyond the United Kingdom. According to Davie (2002) 40% of individuals in America, still attend church on a weekly basis, with an even higher number attending monthly. It is noted that this is a similar rate to that reported in the 1940’s. It is interesting to note however that Catholicism in America has declined in a similar fashion to Europe, suggesting that it may be particular characteristics of a religion that drive people away.
Generally speaking, the majority of statistics on secularization supports the theory of secularization. However are statistics an indication of a decline in religious belief, or simply a decline in religious practise? We also have to question the reliability and validity of the statistics. Firstly, the methodology used to collect that statistics in the early 19th century is subject to scrutiny. Some critics also argue that there may be an ulterior motive to particular reporting. For example, the Anglican Church may purposefully underestimate the number in their congregation in order to reduce the capitation fees that would ordinarily have to pay to higher church authorities. Similarly, some Churches may overestimate figures, when they are low, because they worry of a risk of being closed down. In addition each religious institution calculates their membership in very different ways. For example, in the Roman Catholic Church, members are only those whom were baptised and confirmed, often regardless of the levels of attendance. The Church of Wales, on the other side of the spectrum, bases attendance on the numbers attending during the Easter communion.
Religious pluralism can be defined as the fragmentation of the world religions. To some commentators, the emergence and growth of new religious movements is evidence against secularization and represents rather, a process of resacrilization (Greeley 1972). This process refers to a revival of the sacred through various new religious groups. Stark and Bainbridge (1985) also felt strongly that religion was not declining. It was acknowledged that some churches has lost their appeal and declined in participation. However, this is attributed to the pressures of modern working life. It is proposed that many churches lost their focus on the supernatural, so people began to start their own sects and cults that catered for their lifestyle, focuses mainly on self spirituality. This claim was substantiated with statistical evidence that illustrated that showed that were church going was at its lowest, cult and sect activity was it is highest. Stark and Bainbridge also suggest that New Age Movements are increasing in popularity. These movements promote self-spirituality and individualism.
Wilson (1982) is particularly dismissive of newly emerging religions. He points out that they are largely irrelevant to wider society as they have such small participation and membership, and are usually very short lived due to their reliance on a charismatic leader. He suggests that members of new movements show very little interest outside their own world, due to the emphasis on hedonism. For this reason, they will always be short lived.
To conclude, there seems to be conflicting evidence for and against the decline of religion. However, the evidence for secularization over the last two hundred years has been far more detailed. The emergence of new religious movements, and the continual existence of older religions suggests that it stills plays an important role in wider society, but to a varying extent. The reality is, religion plays a part in society outside the supernatural: a sense of community, a sense of belonging, commonality and a sense of existential worth. As long individuals continue to seek these characteristics, religion in varying forms, will continue to exist.
References
Wilson, B. Religion in a Sociological Perspective . Oxford : Oxford University Publishers , 1982.
Voas, David. "Religion In Britain: neither believing nor belonging." Sociology 39, no. 1 (2003 ): 234-239.
Bruce, S. God is Dead. Oxford : Blackwell , 2002.
Brierly, P. Pulling out of the nose dive: A contemporary picture of churchgoing . London: Christian research , 2006.
Davie, G. Europe: The exceptional case. London: Longman and Todd, 2002.
Greeley, A. Unsecular Man: The persistence of religion . New York : Shocken Books , 1972.
Martin, D. The General Theory Of Secularisation . Oxford : Blackwell, 1978.
Stark, W, and W Bainbridge. The future of Religion . Berkeley : University of California , 1985.
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