What is Social Exclusion?
What is Social Exclusion?
In this essay, I will be studying various definitions of the term social exclusion, in an attempt to explain what it is. The term exclusion tends to refer to an individual or group of people who are kept out from a place or group or privilege (English Oxford dictionary). When we talk and write about 'social exclusion' we are talking about changes in the whole of society, which have consequences to some people in society (Social exclusion, David Byrne 1999).
Hence I will be focussing on definitions of social exclusion in social sciences and a social and political setting.
In relation to British social policy, the term social exclusion is relatively new. The government has described social exclusion as a shorthand term for what can happen when people or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime, bad health and family breakdown. (social exclusion unit, preventing social exclusion, www.socialexclusion.gov.uk).
The definition of social exclusion by the government is intentionally flexible, with several other types of exclusion, which exist. In the 'Preventing social exclusion' document, it concluded the most important characteristic is that the problems are linked and mutually reinforcing. Hence different dimensions of social exclusion combine with each other creating a complex and vicious cycle, which needs to be fully understood before policies can become effective. For example, results from the social exclusion unit reveals out of those who sleep rough, 30-50% suffer mental health problems, only 38% have educational qualifications, up to 50% have serious alcohol problems and finally up to 80% have drug problems (SEU, Rough Sleeping, 1998).
Hence these results can emphasise the concept of different characteristics being linked and mutually reinforcing, combining to create complex and vicious cycles. To receive benefits and medical help, the person needs to have an address. If the person is spending what money they have on drink and drugs, then the can struggle to afford the rent, and end up sleeping on the street. Issues with mental health, drink and drugs needs to be addressed if the person is going to find affordable accommodation and hold down a job.
The social exclusion unit was set up by the labour government in 1997, and help those who are being socially excluded.
In terms of another perspective of social exclusions, the concept can be traced to Weber who identified exclusion as a form of social closure (Parkin 1979). Weber saw exclusionary closure as an attempt by one group to secure a privileged position through a process of subordination of others. Weber believed social exclusion was based on conscious and unconscious human agency. Hence humans decide consciously or unconsciously to exclude others. For example, those with the financial means, ...
This is a preview of the whole essay
The social exclusion unit was set up by the labour government in 1997, and help those who are being socially excluded.
In terms of another perspective of social exclusions, the concept can be traced to Weber who identified exclusion as a form of social closure (Parkin 1979). Weber saw exclusionary closure as an attempt by one group to secure a privileged position through a process of subordination of others. Weber believed social exclusion was based on conscious and unconscious human agency. Hence humans decide consciously or unconsciously to exclude others. For example, those with the financial means, opt for private health care, often avoiding large waiting lists, which those who don't have the financial means are faced with on the NHS. Jordan (1996) takes a similar stance to Weber, giving an example of those in a community with private provision to high-quality services with security preventing others from accessing the services. In British society those who are willing to or have the financial means can afford private health care and private education leaving those without the financial means to rely on basic state provision. An example of this is postcode health care, where the prescribing of certain drugs is dependent on the area, which you live.
In contrast to Weber, Marx argued that capitalism was at the centre of social exclusion, in that capitalism relied on the unemployed to ensure there are sufficient workers in case of an economic boom. Hence social exclusion is a product of the economic system, rather than as a result of the individuals behaviour.
Although I can see a logic in Marx's theory, I believe his focus on work and the economy is somewhat reductionist, in terms of exclusion being more complex and having several dimensions to it. For example, it doesn't really explain why individuals are excluded due to their race or sexuality etc.
One of the debates regarding social exclusion is whether it is the fault of the excluded, or a result of the social system (structural phenomenon). Both Marx and Weber saw social exclusion as a result of the social system, with people attempting to secure privileged positions for themselves at the expense of the least well off. However some would argue it is the behaviour of certain individuals, which leads to them, being excluded from society, whether it be those living in poverty, who rely on state benefits and refuse to work. Or whether it be the upper classes that choose to exclude themselves from the rest of society in the lifestyles they lead.
In terms of being used in a more modern sense, social exclusion originated from France, where their system of social insurance relies on employed individuals donating part of their salaries to special funds, which in turn will pay them generous benefits if and when required. Hence 'Les exclus' was the term used to refer to those who fell through the social insurance net. In the 1970's, disabled people, lone parents and the uninsured unemployed young adults were the most common to fall through the net (Evans 1998).
There has been an increase in those falling through the net since globalisation, deindustrialisation, an ageing population and changing labour markets has destroyed the old insurance system. This has left people living in Christian democracies having to rely on basic and often inadequate assistance from the governments. This resulted in the establishment of the European Observatory on social exclusion, and to the focus on 'social inclusion' resolutions at EU level.
Byrne (1999) believed social exclusion was a "necessary and inherent characteristic of unequal post-industrial capitalism founded around a flexible labour market". Hence there is no permanent underclass, but people act as a reserve army of labour, who change places with those in low status employment, but also serving to keep the power of the working class in check (Understanding Social Exclusion, p2).
Under conservative government in the 80's and 90's, the focus was on individuals to support themselves, rather than rely on the welfare state. New labour politicians and academics used the term social exclusion to discuss poverty, after the conservatives declared there was no such thing as poverty. Under New Labour, equality is no longer a priority, as the government focuses instead on inclusion, as individuals can be unequal and yet included in society.
Another explanation for social exclusion is provided in J. Hills et al, Understanding Social Exclusion, providing a more dynamic approach, by looking at different factors, which may contribute to social exclusion. From the individual, the model branches out looking at wider processes, which can contribute to social exclusion. For example the individual can contribute to social exclusion through gender, race, disability, beliefs etc. On the next level, the family can contribute to social exclusion through partnerships and children caring responsibilities. The community can lead to social exclusion in terms of social and physical environment, schools, health and social services. On a local scale, the labour market and transport can influence social exclusion. On a national scale, cultural influences, social security and legislative framework can have a major influence. Finally, on a global level, international trace, migration and climate change can all influence social exclusion. All levels interact and contribute towards each other in various circumstances. For example, an individual is influenced by their family, the community and both national and global context, in the decisions they make and opportunities available to them. This model reflects the complexity of social exclusion, and the difficulties in trying to establish the cause for it, when so many different factors are involved on different levels, which interact with each other.
In conclusion to what is social exclusion, Atkinson (1998) claims "reading numerous enquiries and reports on exclusion reveals a profound confusion among experts". Different definitions by the likes of Weber, Marx, Byrnes, the British and French governments, emphasise either a 'profound confusion' or a major difference in perception and understanding of the term. Levitas (1996) claimed social exclusion was becoming a fashionable way of talking about poverty. Whereas the British social exclusion unit views social exclusion as being a number of different dimensions which form a vicious cycle. Despite there being a lot of ambiguity in the term, as Peters (1996) says, "Some reject the term entirely on the grounds that it is 'highly problematic'", the most important thing is that British government is looking at ways to help those who are socially excluded through the social exclusion unit. I think social exclusion is a not only complex as a term to understand, but also a complex issue to resolve, which requires long term planning rather than short term solutions, if the numbers of those being excluded is to be reduced. At the same time, there is only so much the governments can do, if individuals choose to exclude themselves in terms of anti-social behaviour etc.
Bibliography
Byrne. D. - Social Exclusion, Open University Press, 1999, Chs 1-3.
T. Burchardt et al (eds) 'Introduction' in J. Hills et al, Understanding Social Exclusion, Oxford University Press, 2002.
S.MacGregor, 'Social Exclusion', in N. Ellison and C. Pierson (eds), Developments in British Social Policy 2, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2003.
A. Stewart, Social Inclusion: Possibilities and Tensions, Macmillan, 2000.
Social Exclusion Unit, www.socialexclusion.gov.uk
