One focal area which was the cause for a lot of the changes between youth cultures, was the shifts from the post-war youth cultures and changes which took place within working class neighbourhoods; according to Cohen the major changes that shifted the youth culture took place just after 1945, which was the reconstruction and destablishment of many local pubs and corner shops, Cohen argued that these patterns included re-housing and redevelopment inside traditional neighbourhoods and the fall of traditional labour markets, these traditions were under attack from commercialised mass culture, this lead to polarisation of labour, which lead to the low-paid unskilled jobs associated with the decline in the staple industries, these particular impacts were a large blow to the working class community.(Cohen, 1980) This resulted in tensions within working class culture, and formed the most visible subcultures. Young people consequently became set apart by their market choices, and were defined in terms of class, the reason for these rebellious cultures were due to working class families only entitled to low paid jobs, so the young rebelled against the government. (Brake, M 1993,pp28)
Studies into these rebellious cultures of the post-war conflicts lead to a huge investigate into the effects that the conflicts brought upon the working class communities. It was traditions within the British working class community that were under attack from mass culture that alarmed many sociologists. This lead to the research of the Birmingham School, known as ‘the subculture theory’. The theory focused on the younger generation and why it was the younger generation had been open to class struggles and conflicts. These struggles were reflected in education, work and even leisure. . (Hebdige, 1979). The CCCS believed that youth sub-cultures, were a way for the young to become individuals who could set there own standards in order to overcome social conditions and to rebel against the government. The younger generation needed to be visible, so creating their own identities and there own culture, refusing to be apart of the so-called ‘adult world’. Were their own why of dealing with what was happening in society as well as a way of dealing with the problems . (Hebdige, 1979).
Young peoples influences and experiences were the key to placing the reasons for the rebellious youth culture in the sixties.yet, many sub-cultural groups were formed, as a way of making sense of the world. The earliest forms of post-war conflict were the teddy boys and mods these created a mini history of culture of their own. The teddy boys were the first rebellious youths; they lacked school education and were unable to gain entrance into well-paid jobs. They wore drape jackets, velvet collars, pipe trousers, soled shoes and bootlace ties. According to Jefferson sighted in Brake, M 1993, ‘they were all dressed up and had no were to go’. The teddy boys gave the working class youth a chance to enjoy life before they had to settle down. (Brake, M 1993,pp9)
The teddy boys had a desire to rebel and so forced into crime. The teddy boys became responsible for everything and were a product of society, who in spite of everything believed that the middle classes were entitled to push standards on a class whose whole way of life was completely different ever since its older generation used the war as their reason to lay down the law, as a consequence to lead an education that only ended in dead-end jobs.(Hebdige, 1979) Next were the mods they wore the latest fashions from Italy, yet, were backward looking only riding on scooters, still they seemed to manage with their social and working lives. Their appearance was simple wearing parka jackets, with short neat hair and they were seen to reflect a hip image. The girls in the gang were stylish, reflected in the latest fashions. They were tough and rebellious towards their older generation although their image was smart, their wild image was remembered when the mob gangs travelled to Brighton and caused trouble using their scooters as a weapon and a basis of solidarity. (Cohen, 1980)
Then again, the subculture theorists understood that countless youth styles such as clothes and hairstyles formed resistance. However through history there has always been limits to the forms of resistance youth subcultures can achieve. (Hebdige, 1979) ‘No haircut no matter how startling, could bring the capitalist group to its knees’. (Hebdige, 1979) Youth cultures of the eighties and nineties seemed to be less rebellious within their social class, thought the cultural forms such as the acid house and raves was modelled on the large-scale parties of Ibizan holiday resorts. Though the dance culture was no rebellious it shared all generations and all classes, it was no longer a minority youth subculture and could no be dismissed from society. (Wills, 1990)
Although there were a variety of styles, common to all rave music is a repetitive beat pattern futuristic noises such as electronic beets. Many ravers used a designer drug, also known as Ecstasy or “E” which is supposed to give users a great sense of well being; affection for those around them; increased energy; and, sometimes, hallucinations. Other drugs are also used, as well as highly addictive tranquillisers such as diazepam to help the raver to “come down” at the end of the night. The combination of the repetitive, loud music, the psychedelic light displays, and the feeling of unity shared by the participants apparently increased by taking Ecstasy has made rave a widespread trend in youth culture. (Garfield, 1994)
In contrast, the teddy boys and mods have hardly been typical of the rebellious youth culture of the British youngsters, as the majority of young people have been more normal in identifying themselves within their class. Most youths have only adopted a limited range of subculture trappings, through wearing a t-shirt or buying a record rather than making a commitment to a sub-cultural style. (Hebdige, 1979) Within this generation youth is blurred and so young people attachments to such groups have been brief. But, as Cohen stated, youth subcultures during the 1960’s between mods and teddy boys were too similar to define, though skinheads were a product of the media and quickly disappeared. Many subcultures were frozen in particular times in history. Various styles have developed and great deals of different youth groups have changed, making sense in different ways, the skinheads had a simple shaved head, wore braces and Dr Marten boots, then the trends of the youth generation completely changed giving way to the smooth styles of the seventies, this formed a more masculine identity. The smooth image of long hair flared trousers and tank tops were youth trends in the early seventies. Any attempt to make a difference between sub-cultural style and mainstream fashion and the many form of rebellious towards the adult generation and the post-war youth cultures is difficult (Hebdige, 1979). Indeed the Developments within the subculture of style among youth seemed to echo the eighties, skinhead trends returned to football terraces at the beginning of the decade, this was organised crime and violence erupted up and down the country within the football leagues, this was their way of rebelling against new laws which changed football stadiums and to cause major policing problems at matches i.e. Chelsea and Millwall, this was their way of fighting for their club and building a ‘bad reputation’ within football. Indeed the post-war decades have seen alcohol play a more constant role in the leisure if the youth subcultures.(Willis, 1990)
Various youth subcultures throughout the eighties and nineties were particularly visible within the working class communities just as they were in the early sixties, however the commercial market needed new growing areas, as the cultures of the teenager were now commercial tools and the phrase teenager began to disappear with no reference to post-war change. (Cohen, 1980) As young people faced problems during a time of change and development, the nineties generation could be trusted with the future, however there was growing numbers of unemployed and a widening gap between youth and adult rates of pay, which left the younger generation uncertain of the future, this lead to grunge. The grunge style was the younger generations sense of indifference. The grunge style was a new way for British youngsters to show their response to the social and economic situations they become confronted with. However the unemployed teenager of the nineties soon became known as generation X, a generation of teenagers that was full of rebellious underemployed teenagers leading a depressed existence (Brake, 1991).
The fact that recent subcultures have lead to rebellious consequences with the government, it is unlikely that the political view of British youths will shift, if Britain remains a society set apart by discrimination in class. On the other hand, rebellious subcultures, trends, culture and growing relationship between lower class community’s rebellious youths are set to stay. This is due to advanced developments within media, technology and global marketing around the world.(Willis, 1990)
In conclusion by examining music, dress and the style of youths, it is clear that they are creating their own sub-cultural styles and identity, these were potential for social change and the reason for crime and rebellious behaviour of youths from working class communities. The Birmingham School were holey interested in the ways in which members of subcultures invent style by selecting and reassemble various cultural formed in dominant society.
BIBLOGRAPHY
Brake, Michael. (1991) Comparative youth Culture: the Sociology Of Youth Subcultures in America. London: Routledge.
Cohen, Stanley. (1980) Folk Devils and Moral Panics. London: MacGibbon and Kee.
Garfield, S. (1994) The End Of Innocence. Faber: London.
Heaven, Patrick. (2001) The Social Psychology Of Adolescence. Hampshire: Palgrace.
Hebdige, D. (1979) Subculture, The Meaning Of Style. London: Metheum.
Springhall. (1998) Youth, Popular Culture & Moral Panics: Penny Gaffs to Gangsta rap 1830-1996. Basingstock: MacMillan.
Willis, P. (1990) Moving Culture. London: Gulbenkian.
REFERENCES
Brake, Michael. (1991) Comparative youth Culture: the Sociology Of Youth Subcultures in America. London: Routledge.
Cohen, Stanley. (1980) Folk Devils and Moral Panics. London: MacGibbon and Kee.
Garfield, S. (1994) The End Of Innocence. Faber: London.
Heaven, Patrick. (2001) The Social Psychology Of Adolescence. Hampshire: Palgrace.
Hebdige, D. (1979) Subculture, The Meaning Of Style. London: Metheum.
Springhall. (1998) Youth, Popular Culture & Moral Panics: Penny Gaffs to Gangsta rap 1830-1996. Basingstock: MacMillan.
Willis, P. (1990) Moving Culture. London: Gulbenkian.
